VIEWS OF OTHER FAITHS official source: Ta'ttvika Praveshika' cross-references: also published in A Few Problems Solved Part 6, Prout in a Nutshell Part 3, Ananda Marga Philosophy in a Nutshell Part 3 this version: is the printed Ananda Marga Philosophy in a Nutshell Part 3, 1st edition, version (spelling mistakes only may have been corrected). I.e., this is the most up-to-date version as of the present Electronic Edition. Words in square brackets [ ] are corrections that did not appear in the printed version. (This article originally appeared in English in Ta'ttvika Praveshika', 1957. Only one thousand copies of that book were printed; the author never instructed that the book be reprinted in its original form. In 1987-1988, on the order of the author, a shorter version of this article appeared in both the Bengali and English editions of A Few Problems Solved 7, Prout in a Nutshell 11 and Ananda Marga Philosophy in a Nutshell 3. What appears here is the 1988 English Ananda Marga Philosophy in a Nutshell 3, 1st edition, version.) The important philosophies and religions or faiths prevalent in the world at the present time are Buddhism, Sha'unkara philosophy, Pa'tainjala Philosophy, Sa'm'khya Philosophy, A'rya Sama'j, Marxism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. These are arranged into the following groups due to their similarities, and their outstanding principles and beliefs are discussed together. (1) Buddhism and Sha'unkara Philosophy (2) Pa'tainjala Philosophy and Ka'pil Sa'm'khya Philosophy (3) A'rya Sama'ja (4) Marxism Besides these there are the Semitic faiths comprising Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Buddhism and Shaunkara Philosophy All As'tika or theistic Indian philosophies unanimously believe that A'tman or unit consciousness is a continuous flow of Jina'na or knowledge. This is called Vijina'na in Pa'li. There is a continuous flow of Jina'na, or in other words Jina'na itself is a flow (Prava'ha). Every object in the universe has its own flow and wave or dynamic force. According to Yoga philosophy Parama'tman or Supreme Consciousness is an infinite flow of Jina'na. Ekam jina'nam nityama'dantashu'nyam, Na'nyat kimcit va'rtate vastu satyam, Tayor bhedosminindriyopadhina vae, Jina'nasya'yambha'sate nannyathaeva. (Shiva Sam'hita') Lord Buddha did not use the word A'tman, hence there was a difference of opinion among the Bhikksus or Buddhist monks after his death. Three conferences were held to compile the Tripitaka or Buddhist scriptures and as a result the Tripita'ka was compiled in three parts in Pa'li -- Vinaya Pita'ka or the practical side, Suttapitaka or the theoretical side and Abhidhamma Pitaka or the philosophical side. All of these parts combined together were known as the Tripitaka and were called the Buddhist scriptures. The Bhikhus who patronised or supported the Sannya'sa Ma'rga or the path of renunciation were not prepared to accept anything more than what was laid down in the Tripitaka, and hence they were called Sthavira'va'dii or Therava'dii, the southern school of Buddhism. Those who were influenced by the Nya'ya school of philosophy were called Maha'sa'm'ghika or the northern school of Buddhism. The word Pa'li originated from Pallii which means 'rural', rustic or unsophisticated. As Bhagava'n Buddha preached in the language of common people, Hindu scholars called his language Bha'kha'. Pa'li was also known as Pa'li Bha's'a. The common people could not follow Sam'skrta which was the language of scholars only. Later on the Maha'sa'm'ghikas called themselves Maha'ya'nii and they called the Sthavirava'diis Hiinaya'nii. But the Hiinaya'niis called themselves Therava'dii. In India there was no state backing for Hiinaya'niis except at the time of the rulers Kaniska, and Vasiska, and hence the Hiinaya'na did not flourish. The Maha'ya'na had state backing so it naturally had a larger number of followers. The philosophy of the Hiinaya'niis was preached in Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Java and Borneo, etc., whereas the philosophy of the Maha'ya'niis was propagated in India, Siberia, Japan Tibet, etc. There are four kinds of philosophical doctrines among the Maha'ya'niis. The reason for this difference of opinion is A'tman and its object. Bhagava'n Buddha used the word 'Atta' in Pa'li for A'tman. The word Atta is also used in place of 'Self'. The Bhikkhus could not understand the sense in which Bhagava'n Buddha used the word Atta. Ca'rva'ka At the time of Buddha, Na'stika Va'da or non-belief in God was dominant. Mahars'i Ajita Keshakamballi was the scholar of the Na'stika' Va'da. Most of the books on Na'stikyava'da were written in incomprehensible language and so its propagation was not very widespread. Ajita Keshakambalii followed Ca'rva'ka who had a materialistic philosophy. The Ca'rva'ka school of philosophy believes in Caturbhu'ta or the four fundamental factors. This is also known as Deha'tmava'da, that is, the belief that the body is everything and that the soul is identified with the body. This philosophy accepts Caturbhu'ta, namely earth, water, fire and air or Ks'iti, ap, tejas and marut respectively. According to Ca'rva'ka, Caetanya or Conscious came into existence by the combination of the four bhu'tas in the same way as the mixing of lime and catechu produces a red colour. According to Ca'rva'ka, Paincabhu'ta or the fifth factor is formed in this way and does not actually exist. Ca'rva'ka philosophy does not believe in A'tman, Parama'tman and the Vedas and hence Ca'rva'ka was termed Na'stika, since those who do not believe in A'tman, Parama'tman or the Vedas are called Na'stika ([a]theist). Pu'rva Mima'm'sa' school of philosophy also does not admit the existence of Parama'tman. Kapila, the propounder of the Sa'mkhya philosophy, accepted A'tman and the Vedas, but he did not believe in Parama'tman. The Sar'adarshana or the six major school of theistic Indian Philosophy believe in the Vedas. The following are the six schools of philosophy. (1) Kapila Sa'm'khya which accepts the existence of Prakrti and the Vedas but does not accept Parama'tman. (2) Pa'tainjala Sa'm'khya which believes in innumerable Purus'as and one Prakrti. The creator of the universe according to this school cannot be a Mukta Purusa or a liberated being. (3) Gaotama Nya'ya philosophy. (4) Kan'a'da's Nya'ya philosophy or Vaeshes'ika. (5) Jaemini's Pu'rva Miima'msa' or early Miima'msa' philosophy which believes in Kriya'kanda or the doctrine of action. Those who believe in this school accept the existence of heaven and hell. (6) Utta'ra Miima'msa' or later Miima'msa' philosophy propounded by Va'dra'yana' Vya'sa believes in Brahma and the vedas but does not believe in A'tman and Jagat or the world. This philosophy is commonly known as Vedanta philosophy. The Buddhist philosophy believes in all the five bhu'tas or fundamental factors while Ca'rva'ka believes in Caturbhu'ta or four fundamental factors. Baoddha Darshana and Ca'rva'ka philosophy do come under the purview of S'ar'adarshana, and neither of them believe in the Vedas. They are atheistic philosophies. Prama'na or validity is of three kinds, that is, Pratyaks'a or direct knowledge, anuma'na or inference and a'gama or authority. Ca'rva'ka accepts only pratyaks'a as prama'na. Pratyaks'aeka prama'n'ava'ditaya' anuma'na'de Anaungiika'rena prama'n'ya'bha'vat." "Pratyaks'a or perception is the only source of knowledge, and inference (An'uma'na) and authority (A'gama) are not to be recognized as sources of knowledge." Buddha accepts karmaphala or the reactions of actions, whereas Ca'rva'ka does not. Ya'vajjiivam'sukham' jiivam' na'sti mrtyuragocarah. Ya'vajjiivet sukham jiivet Rn'am'krta' [ghrtam'] pivet. Na svargo na pavargo va' naeva'tma pa'ralaokikam. Bhasmiibhu'tasya dehasya purnara'gamanam' kutah. "As long as you live, you should live in joy and happiness for we do not know what happens after death. As long as one lives in the world, one should live in comfort and happiness. One should even eat clarified butter (ghee) by incurring debts, for there is neither heaven nor the reactions of actions, nor A'tman or Soul, nor the world beyond death. After the body is cremated how can it be reborn again? There is another aspect of Ca'rva'ka philosophy, Dehaparina'ma'va'da.* (i.e. The death of body signifies the end of everything). Caturbhyokhalu bhu'tebhyo caetanyamupaja'yate. Kin'va'dibhyoh sametebhyo dravyebhyo madashaktivat." In this respect Buddhist philosophy is superior to Ca'rva'ka philosophy. Bhagavan Buddha says, At'ta' hii at'ta'nam na'thah. Buddhism Why did India accept Buddhism? There are various reasons for this and the main ones are as follows. First, the scholars of that time never preached philosophy to the common people. They hated the language of the common people and called it Bha'kha'. Secondly, at that time there was no Tattvadarshii or eminent philosopher. Thirdly, the people in general were not ready to accept the pandits or scholars. Fourthly, the A'ca'ryas of that age, Shrii Sainjaya and Shrii Gaya' Kashyapa, could not convince Buddha. All these factors led to the wide propagation and acceptance of Buddhism. Buddhism believes in rebirth and transmigration of souls, so the question arises: Who is reborn if there is no A'tman? This question became a point of controversy among the Bhikkus (monks) and later among the Maha'ya'nii scholars. Buddhism believes in Karmaphala or the reaction of actions. If karmaphala is accepted, the question arises: who performs karma or action and who gets the karmaphala? Therefore, the existence of A'tman has got to be recognized. Towards the end of Buddha's life some of his disciples asked Buddha about the existence of God. They asked two questions: "Does God exist?" and "Is it a fact that God does not exist?" In reply to both questions Buddha remained silent. As Buddha remained silent to both the questions some of his disciples interpreted this to mean that there is no God. Another section of disciples understood that God exists. Yet a third section came forward with the interpretation that there is God, but God is beyond the expression of 'Asti' and 'na'sti' or "is" and "is not"; that is, God's existence is inexplicable. Actually God is supramental. Yato va'co nivartante apra'pya manasa'saha, A'nandam' brahmano vidva' ma' vibheti kutahcanah. There are four sections in Buddhist philosophy -- Pratyaks'a Va'hya Vastuva'da or Soutan'trika Darshana, Anumeya Va'hya-vastuva'da or Vaebha's'ika Darshana, Sarvashu'nyava'da or Ma'dhyamika Darshana and Ks'an'ika Vijina'nava'da or Baoddha Yoga'ca'ra. Pratyaks'a Va'hyavastuva'da accepts the universe as infinite, that is, ana'dii and ananta or beginningless and infinite when Caetanya or Consciousness becomes a'layiibhu'ta or objectivated then it becomes jina'na. The outer world is transitory but due to rapid movement (Saincara or Prati-saincara: extroversion or introversion) it appears to exist constantly. (According to Hindu philosophy Saincara means "to go away from Brahma and Pratisaincara meanss "to come near to Brahma," that is Saincara means the Vikars'anii Shakti of Brahma and Prati-saincara means the A'kars'anii Shakti of Brahma). Anumeyava'hya Vastuva'da accepts the waves of Jina'na as a permanent entity (satta'). There is the external world but the world will never be realised. When the waves of consciousness (Jina'na) come, the mind takes a form according to the Sam'ska'ras or potential reactions of past actions of the Citta or mental plate. Formations created in the mind are taken to be Satya or veracity. When Jina'na comes in contact with A'lambana or desideratum, Citta takes a form: it takes the outward a'lambana as the object realised. Sarvashu'nyava'da is also called Ma'dhyamika Darshana and was propounded by Shriina'ga'rjuna. He did not accept the pa'incabhaotika world or the world of the five fundamental factors. The external world which we see is Ma'ya' or illusion. This philosophy is similar to Sham'kara's philosophy, Brahma Satyam jagatmithya'. According to Sham'kara the universe has been created out of nothing and is like a dream, nothing more. Bha'va' i.e. something has been created out of Abha'va' i.e. nothing. This school of philosophy accepts only the present and ignores the past and the future. It also says that the universe will merge into nothing. Ks'an'ika-vijina'nava'da does not admit the physical world: here everything is internal. Even a'lambana is internal. Whatever is seen in this physical world is pratikriya' or the outer projection of internal a'lambana. A'tman is the collection of the 'I' feelings. It is not a continuous flow but appears to be so on account of the quick succession of its creation and destruction. During the age of Bhagava'n Sham'kara'ca'rya there was no outstanding philosopher (tattvadras't'a) among the Buddhists. Among different sections of the Buddhist schools of philosophy a serious dispute was going on. At that time Shrii Manadana Mishra was the only scholar who believed in Sarva Shu'nyava'da or complete nihilism and he was also a Kriya' Ka'n'dii or follower of the path of action. He debated with Sham'kara'ca'rya and was defeated. According to Buddhist philosophy there are four noble truths (Satya) which are called Caturajja satya. They are as follows: (1) Duhkha or sorrow (2) Ka'ran'a of duhkha or the cause of sorrow (3) Nivrtti of duhkha or the cessation of sorrow (4) Upa'ya of duhkha nivritti or the means of the cessation of sorrow. The Vikrti or distortion of the Duhkhava'da or the school of pessimism became Atisukhava'da or ultra-hedonism. Atisukhava'da was prevalent in Bengal, Assam and Tibet. According to Buddhism, duhkha is A'rya Satya or the absolute truth. This is a wrong interpretation as it is only the Ma'nas or mind which experiences dukha. Dukha can thus be only a relative truth but it cannot be an absolute truth [Sham'kara's Philosophy] Sham'kara'ca'rya was a Shaeva Tantrika or a practitioner of Tantra who followed Shiva, and that is why he did not go against Tantrava'da or the doctrine of Tantra. He believed in Nirgun'a Brahma or the non-qualified Supreme Entity only. His theories to some extent fall in line with the theories of the Baoddha Shun'yava'da or the Buddhist nihilists. He did not believe in the existence of jagat or the physical world. He accepted Gun'a'nvita Ma'ya'va'da or the doctrine of qualified illusion. Due to his influence Buddhist Tantra disappeared. In Hindu Tantra, gods and goddesses still remained. Even today the common people worship the goddesses of Buddhist Tantra like Ta'ra', Manasa' (the goddess of snakes) Shiitala', Ba'rahii etc. out of devotion. Shunyava'da was very influential during the time Shrii Sham'kara'ca'rya preached. Shrii Sham'kara'ca'rya accepted Utta'ra Miima'm'sa' as later Miima'm'sa' philosophy propounded by Shrii Va'dara'yana Vya'sa. Shrii Sham'kara'ca'rya discussed the following subjects with Buddhist philosophers. The Shu'n'yava'diis said that the universe came out of nothing and will go into nothing, that everything is a dream. This was questioned by Sham'kara who said that even if the universe is nothing or a dreamland, there should be someone who witnessed the dream. The Shu'nyava'diis replied that there was no dreamer. The universe is an illusion just as a rope mistaken for a snake is an illusion. Sham'kara said, that could not be possible. The Shu'nyava'diis replied that this could only be understood by Sa'dhana' while Sham'kara said that it was not possible to have a dream without a dreamer. If the universe is an illusion like mistaking a rope for a snake, there had to be something like a rope which could be mistaken for the universe. Without a rope it would be impossible to mistake it for a snake. Besides this there must be a person to make the mistake. Similarly, there must be someone to experience the illusion of the universe. This means that there must be some other entity to experience it. Ma'dhyamika said that nothing does not mean actually nothing (Shu'nya). What you call Brahma we call nothing. So the illusion of the universe is Brahma. That is, Yatha' shu'nya va'dina'm' shu'nym Brahma Brahmavida'm'statha'. "What Brahma is to the Brahmava'diis, Shu'nya or nothing is to the Shu'nyava'dins". Sham'kara replied that this means that the one who sees and the object which is seen are both illusion. Where there is no one to see, who will mistake the rope for snake? The Shunyavadiis could not give any explanation for this. The Kshanikavadiis -- those who believed in the doctrine of transience -- explanation of Sham'kara's questions was that the illusion is always Ks'anika or transient. Sham'kara's point was that he believed that Brahma was ana'di and ananta but that Ks'an'a comes in a moment and disappears the very next moment. Thus where does the Ks'anika entity come from? Something must exist between the span of creation and the span destruction. The Ks'anikava'diis replied that it is destroyed with the creation, but Sham'kara replied that this shows that there is no existence. The Ks'an'ikava'diis felt defeated but they still replied that existence was negligible. This was not a satisfactory explanation. The scholars of the Pratyaks'a Va'hyavastuva'da and Anumeya Va'hyavastuva'da argued for their philosophies but no one could withstand that questioning of Shamkaracarya, hence all the four sections of Buddhism were defeated by Shrii Sham'kara. On defeat they made friends with Shrii Sham'kara and accepted Ku'lakun'd'alinii Tattva or the practice of raising the serpentine power in human beings, and as a result Baoddha Yoga'ca'ra came into existence. There are several defects in Sham'kara's philosophy. According to Shamkara the universe is based on a fixed object by the illusion of Ma'ya', which is called Brahma. There is an illusion of a snake for a rope. Now the question arises, who has the illusion of a snake? One who already knows about snakes. If there is an illusion of the universe for Brahma it means that the real universe is somewhere else. Thus the theory Brahma satyam jagatmithya is defective. This is a wrong interpretation given by Sham'kara. The Buddhists did not question it and hence it was accepted at the time. Sham'kara does not believe in jiiva and jagat. Thus the question arises, for what reason does the illusion exist? As'ta'kula'cala'h saptasamudra'h Brahmapurandara dinakara rudrah. Na tvam na' ham na' yam lokah Vyartha kimartham kriyate shokah. "The eight mountains, the seven seas, the creation, Brahma', the sun, and the god of death, neither you, nor I, nor this world the are all non-existent. Why should you lament for something non-existent?" The universe has not been created and hence there is no Sagun'a Brahma or Qualified Supreme Entity. Sham'kara believed only in Nirgun'a Brahma or the non-qualified Supreme entity. Sham'kara said that the universe is like a dream and the dreamer is also Brahma, as he did not believe in jiiva. When Brahma is Nirgun'a how could Sham'kara see, as seeing is a quality? But this was also forgotten by Shamkara. Again, according to Sham'kara's philosophy what is seen and experienced is all due to the influence of Ma'ya'. This means Ma'ya' is also an entity which Advaetavada or monism cannot accept. Sham'kara's philosophy believes in the necessity of sa'dhana', but who will perform the Sa'dhana' when the existence of jiiva is not accepted? When Brahma is ana'di and ananta, why should Brahma be influenced by Ma'ya'? Secondly, when the universe is created by the influence of Ma'ya', how is it that Brahma remains Nirguna? Ma'ya' is a greater force than Brahma as it influences Brahma! In addition, Sham'kara says that there is nothing exactly like Ma'ya' as it is an illusion. A person in the desert sees water, houses, and trees etc. from a distance but there is actually nothing. In the absence of Jina'na the person experiences an illusion. When there is Vika'ra or distortion in Brahma, how can the universe be an illusion? Sham'kara says where there is Brahma there is Ma'ya'. Then the question arises , is Ma'ya' nothing? If there is no Ma'ya', how can it influence Brahma? To overcome this Sham'kara says that it is not even nothing. It is inexplicable (anirvacaniiya). Again the question arises as to who created Ma'ya' if Brahma did not create it. Then Ma'ya' becomes Saguna Brahma. Sham'kara was able to defeat Buddhist philosophers only by a display of words. The Ma'ya' of Sham'kara is not the Prakrti of Ananda Marga. One of the great critics of Sham'kara philosophy was Jayanta Bhatta, the propounder Nya'ya Manjari philosophy. Ka'pil Sam'khya and Pa'ta'injal Yoga The common features of these two philosophies include the following: (1) Both believe in the existence of many Purus'as. (2) Both believe that the universe is created by Prakrti for the satisfaction of these Purus'as. This is not logical as no bhoga or satisfaction is possible without the existence of mind. Purus'as do not have mind and they cannot be satisfied by the creation of the universe by Prakrti. (3) Both believe that Prakrti is not within Purus'a but is a separate Entity. This is also illogical since Prakrti is only energy or the shakti of Purus'a, and like the dahika shakti or burning facility of agni or fire, it cannot be a separate entity. These philosophies are called Dvaetava'dii or dualistic because they believe in two separate entities of Purus'a and Prakrti. (4) In Sa'm'khya there is no god and thus it is called Niriishwarava'da or atheism, while Pa'tainjala philosophy believes in God but does not believe in Brahma. This is therefore called Seshvarava'da or theism. (5) Idol worship is supported by both these philosophies. A'rya Sama'ja (1) It believes that jiiva, jagat and Brahma are all ana'di. This only shows that jiiva and jagat do not need any further entity like Brahma and all the three alike are ana'di. This is unacceptable as this leaves no necessity for sa'dhana' or spiritual practice which is the Dharma or essential duty of every jiiva or human being. This also does not explain the reason for action and progress in the universe. (2) It believes in yajinas or sacrifices not as karma or action but as a for of worship. Yajina means karma but in A'rya Sama'ja it means offering to agni or fire in a particular form. There is no rational meaning in performing such Yajinas. (3) They also believe in pralaya or dissolution which is also irrational, since jiiva and jagat are ana'di and as such there is no place for pralaya. Marxism (1) It believes in equality between human beings which is only theoretical and not possible in practice because no two individuals are alike, hence they cannot be equal. (2) This faith finds its field in the exploitation of poverty and hence it can only thrive in poverty-stricken areas. (3) It has no tolerance for other religions or organisations. (4) Its goal is purely imaginary equality. (5) This faith exists on violence only. Besides these, the following three groups belong to the Semitic [faith] -- Muslims, Christians and Jews. 1957, Jamalpur Ta'ttvika Praveshika'