SOME IMPORTANT CROPS official source: Ideal Farming Part 2 cross-references: none this version: is the printed Ideal Farming Part 2, 1st edition, version (spelling mistakes only may have been corrected). I.e., this is the most up-to-date version as of the present Electronic Edition. Agriculture is one of the oldest sciences known to civilisation¬ and directly affects every human being. The knowledge of different crops¬ their utilisation¬ growing requirements¬ etc. have been passed down and improved upon from generation to generation. Without this knowledge¬ human beings would have been dependent on the irregular food supply of nature¬ just like animals. So learning how to grow certain crops has been an essential requirement for human development¬ and a significant feature of social progress. Human beings have acquired some knowledge of a variety of crops¬ but many plants still have unknown and so far unutilised potential. So human beings should expand their knowledge of all kinds of plants¬ and develop new and better methods of increasing crop yeilds. Some important crops which are grown in Bengal are discussed below¬ and include: oil seeds¬ pulses¬ fiber crops¬ cereals¬ vegetables¬ sugar crops¬ fruits¬ nuts¬ tea¬ coffee¬ cocoa¬ coarse grains¬ spices¬ medicinal plants¬ flowers¬ trees¬ etc. OIL SEEDS Many plants have seeds which can be used to produce oil. The oil extracted from the seeds of some of these plants is used to produce thickened oil¬ margarine and other products for human consumption. The oil can also be burnt as a fuel; used to make cosmetics¬ shoe polish¬ furniture wax¬ medicines¬ hair oil¬ etc.; or refined for industrial purposes and used as machine oil¬ etc. The skin of some oil seeds¬ like groundnut¬ can also be removed to make flour to produce bread. Many products can be made from oil seeds. It must be remembered that some oil seeds¬ particularly groundnut¬ soybean and linseed¬ consume a lot of fatty substances from the soil¬ so oil cakes must be applied as manure when planting oil seeds. The method for this is as follows. First¬ the cake should be made into powder and mixed with soil¬ then it should be mixed with water and formed into mounds in the field. If it is to be used at a later date¬ at that time water should be added to the mixture of powder and soil and then it should be applied to the field. Sunflower and sesame consume an ordinary amount of fatty substances. Some of the better known oil seeds are: 1) peanut (china ba'da'm) 2) sesame (til). The varieties include: 1. white 2. black 3. red 3) linseed (tisi) 4) mustard (sars'e¬ saris'a'). The varieties include: 1. ra'i 2. yellow mustard 3. red mustard (tori sars'e) 5) cotton. The varieties include; 1. three year cotton (ga'ch ka'pa's) 2. three month cotton (cha's ka'pa's) 6) sarguja' (niger) 7) castor (eran'd'a¬ r'er'i¬ Ricinus communis). The varieties include: 1. wild castor (bheren'd'a) 2. indigenous castor (cha'ser r'er'i) 8) karamcha' (karanja'¬ Carissa caranda) 9) Indian olive (mahua'¬ mahul) 10) soybean (Glycine max.) 11) sunflower (su'ryamukhi¬ Helianthus annuus). There are two varieties: 1. large 2. small 12) coconut (na'rikel)¬ etc. Peanut (China Ba'dam') The peanut grows under the ground and is one of the oldest food crops known. The word peanut is used in Queen's English¬ but in common English¬ groundnut is used. In recent history¬ other uses have been found for the humble peanut and its oil¬ most notably by the scientist George Washington Carver. Peanut is able to grow in less fertile soil throughout the year¬ and not much water is required for its cultivation. It is a three and a half month crop¬ contains a lot of protein and has much food value. It is an important food in the diets of many poor people because it is fairly easy to grow and highly nutritious. And it is a regular item in the diets of many not so poor people as well because it is tasty. From the peanut we get peanut milk¬ peanut oil¬ peanut butter¬ peanut cheese¬ peanut casein (cha'na') and rasagolla. The oil is often used in deep frying¬ and because it is quite heavy¬ it can be easily thickened. The thickened oil can be made into margarine. Peanut oil cake may be used both as manure and as animal fodder. If the red skin of the peanut is removed before pressing to extract the oil¬ then it can be used as a substitute for flour to make bread. The method for sowing peanut is as follows. The shell is removed¬ but the red skin is left intact¬ then the peanut is soaked in water. When it has sprouted¬ it should be planted on the hills or mounds of the field. Sesame (Til) Ground sesame seeds¬ or sesame butter or tahini¬ is a popular food item throughout the Middle East. The small seeds are a common item in cooking¬ particularly as a topping for bread. Sesame seeds are highly nutritious and contain vitamins which are difficult to get from other vegetarian sources. Sesame oil can be used for cooking and has many other uses as well. Scented oils may be made by adding floral essences. Sesame should be sown during Pha'lguna. It has three varieties: 1) white 2) black 3) red There are three seasons for growing sesame ­­ summer¬ rainy season and winter. Sesame can be grown as a mixed crop with groundnut because groundnut is a tuber crop¬ while sesame bears fruit above the ground. The two can be sown together on the mounds of the fields. Another name for sesame is mungrail. Linseed (Tisi) Linseed is both an oil crop and a fiber crop. The oil is produced from the seeds and the fiber is produced from the stalk. Unprocessed linseed oil is not fit for human consumption because it is not good for the stomach. But after hydrogenisation and deodourisation¬ it can be made into a refined oil (dalda) which can be eaten. Linseed oil has some medical value¬ particularly as a linament¬ and it also has other uses. However¬ it takes a lot of fatty substances out of the soil¬ and whenever it is planted¬ oil cakes must be applied as manure. After linseed is harvested¬ dhainca (Sesbania bispinosa) must be planted as a green manure. The dhainca should be grown for two months and then ploughed into the field to restore the soil and make it ready for the next crop. Linseed can also be grown with soybean as a mixed crop. Mustard (Sarse¬ Saris'a'¬ Olerasi Family) There are three varieties of mustard: 1) ra'i 2) yellow mustard 3) red mustard (tori sars'e) Ra'i may be sown as a pigeon crop along with paddy in the month of A'shvina. Yellow mustard and red mustard can be sown as mixed crops with wheat¬ but they are not sown as pigeon crops because they require regular cultivation. Mustard leaves are similar to radish leaves. However¬ all varieties of mustard have yellow flowers while radish has white flowers. The green leaves of yellow mustard (sars'e sha'k) should not be eaten because although they are tasty¬ they are acidic. Mustard oil is pungent. The seeds are ground to make a spicy condiment or used directly in cooking. Mustard oil is widely used as a cooking oil in India. It has some medicinal value and other uses as well. Cotton Cotton is well known for its fluffy¬ white balls of fiber¬ but cotton seed is an important source of oil. Cotogen is produced from refined cottonseed oil¬ and the oil cakes are used as cattle feed. The seeds are roasted and eaten as a snack¬ but this snack is harmful for pregnant women and pregnant animals. In particular¬ the oil cake should not be given to pregnant animals as it may cause an abortion. Cotton is not difficult to grow. After the seeds are removed from the balls¬ the fiber is spun into thread which is used to produce all kinds of textile goods. Until recently¬ when artificial fibers began to replace cotton and other natural fibers¬ cotton was the most widely used fiber for textiles. There are two main varieties of cotton: 1. three year cotton (ga'ch ka'pa's) 2. three month cotton (cha's ka'pa's) There are also various types of tree cotton. The most notable is the silk cotton tree (simul)¬ which can also be used to make honey. Tree cotton (deva kusum or Gossypium arboreum) is the best cotton variety. The seeds of tree cotton and three month cotton were first brought to India from Egypt. Tree cotton was previously cultivated in Burdwan and Bankura. Three month cotton is grown in the Punjab¬ Gujarat and Maharashtra¬ and the growing season is from November to February. If the soil is good¬ three year cotton can be planted. Sarguja' (Niger) Sarguja is often grown in tribal areas. The plants are small and it is a winter crop which even grows on poor¬ stony soil. The oil has a distinctive smell¬ but it can be made fit for consumption after decolourisation and deodourisation. The method of sowing sarguja' is as follows. The seeds should be soaked overnight in water and then sown between two groundnuts. In the irrigation canal or furrow between the rows of the field (the nala)¬ sprouted soybean should be sown. Castor (Eran'd'a¬ R'er'i¬ Ricinus Communis) There are two varieties of castor: 1. wild castor (bheren'd'a) 2. indigenous castor (cha'ser r'er'i) Good silk worms can be grown on the leaves of both varieties. Non-mulberry andy silk is produced¬ which is used to make shawls (chadar)¬ shirts and pants (Punjabi kurta and pajyama) and other clothing. Aside from silk production¬ castor can be used to produce many products. The green leaves can be used as a fodder for animals. The oil can be processed and has many uses ranging from rectified hair oil to machine oil. The oil also has medicinal value. The crop rotation for castor is the same as that for cow pea (ar'ahar)¬ except that sesame and soybean should not be sown in the month of Pha'lguna. Green gram (s'a't'ha' moog) should be sown one month after harvesting castor. Karamcha' (Karanja'¬ Carissa Caranda) Karamcha' oil was produced in 2´ Parganas 50 years ago for burning lamps. The burning oil gives off much smoke. Boot polish and kajal for children are made from the soot of the burnt oil. (Kajal is the black substance which is applied under childrens' eyes in India to protect them from the glare of the sun.) The fruit of karamcha' is made into a type of pickle. Karamcha' is used as a hedge plant. Indian Olive (Mahua'¬ Mahul) Indian olive is similar to the Occidental or European olive¬ but they are not the same. It is an important tree¬ and a source of both oil and sugar. The sugar is produced from the flowers and the oil is produced from the fruit. The oil can be used as vegetable oil or thickened and processed into margarine. In A'nanda Nagar and A'nanda Shiila¬ Indian olive grows abundantly. Soybean (Glycine max.) The soybean has long been used as a major food item in the Orient¬ where methods for processing soybean into numerous food and non-food products have been well-developed. For example¬ there one finds soy milk¬ soy cheese (tofu)¬ numerous imitation meat products¬ and many other products made of soybean and its by-products. In the Occident¬ however¬ the soybean has been used mainly as animal fodder until recently. Now its versatility is being recognised and it is becoming more popular. The oil can be used for cooking¬ thickened into margarine or used in other ways. Soybean can be sown with peanut in the irrigation furrows of a field¬ and sesame or sarguja' on the mounds. It is a bit sweet¬ therefore it should be planted after sprouting¬ otherwise ants will eat it up. Sunflower (Su'ryamukhi¬ Helianthus Annuus) The sunflower is known widely for its large sun-loving flowers which make it a good roadside plant. It is also known for its tasty seeds which can be eaten raw¬ roasted¬ ground into butter or in a number of other ways. The seeds supply a lot of oil and are a good energy food. There are two varieties of sunflower: 1) large 2) small It is usually the large variety which is used for oil production. The oil of sunflower can be used for cooking and other purposes as well. Sunflower is an 80-90 day crop in North India¬ and in South India it is a 65-70 day crop. It can be grown throughout the year. When sunflower is crushed without separating the husk from the seed¬ a blackish cake is produced which is used as a cattle feed. If it is crushed after the husk has been removed¬ the cake is white and fit for human consumption. In the large variety¬ there is a removable skin on the seed. If this skin is removed before pressing the seed to extract the oil¬ it can be used to make flour for baking bread. Sunflower can grow on very poor soil. Research should be undertaken to improve the following: 1) the production of the seeds¬ which should be increased; 2) the yield of the oil¬ which should also be increased; and 3) the odour¬ which should be removed by deodourisation. Coconut (Na'rikel) Coconut has many uses. The water is very good to drink and the flesh can be eaten. The tender green coconut is called "dabh" in Bengal. The hard inner shell and the outer husk can be used for a variety of purposes¬ including the preparation of medicines. Coconut oil becomes solid in cool climates. It is used in cooking and is well known as a hair and body oil. Oil cake can be made from coconut oil¬ which is also used in preparing bread. Coconut is most suited to South India and will not be as successful in A'nanda Nagar. Other Oil Seeds Rice bran can be pressed for oil and the remainder can be used to make cement. Olive and lady's finger can also be used to produce oil. Safflower (kusum flower) seeds can be used to produce a less popular but good quality light oil which can be taken by those who must avoid heavy fats. In fact¬ most seeds contain oil of varying types and uses. Melon and cucumber (sosa) seeds may be used for oil extraction¬ but they are not commercially viable. Radish seeds are larger than mustard seeds and they provide a pungent oil somewhat like mustard seed oil. Radish oil cake makes a good manure¬ but radish oil is not widely used. Even onion seeds can be used to produce an oil which has medicinal value. Research should be done on the uncommon oil seeds in order to increase their utility. PULSES Pulses are a valuable source of protein¬ and indispensible in the vegetarian diet. Most pulses are high in protein but have varying degrees of fat. They are easier to digest than casein¬ but less substantial. They are more important as a food than cereals¬ and in emergency conditions¬ pulses are more essential for health. Some pulses are also used for oil production. For farming¬ pulses are important as nitrogen fixers. The roots of all pulses should be left in the soil for some time after the harvest so that they can perform this function. This is one reason why they make excellent blended crops with plants like cereals¬ which do not fix nitrogen in the soil. Pulse in Sam'skrta is "dvidal," and in Hindi and Bengali¬ "da'l." In Urdu all pulses are called "dalahan." There are many common pulses which include: 1) green gram (s'a't'ha' moog). The varieties include: 1. golden gram (sona' moog) 2. horse gram (ghor'a' moog) 3. grassy gram (gheso moog) 2) black gram (biri kala'i) 3) khesa'ri 4) peas (kala'i¬ mat'ar). The varieties include: 1. small black variety (t'hikre mat'ar) 2. big white variety 5) Bengal gram (cha'na'¬ chola'). The varieties include: 1. small black variety (t'hikre cha'na') 2. pink variety (gula'bi cha'na') 3. all white variety (ka'buli cha'na') 6) lentil (masoor). The varieties include: 1. big variety 2. small variety 7) cow pea (ar'ahar). The varieties include: 1. junior cow pea (ma'ghi ar'ahar) 2. senior cow pea (chaeti ar'ahar) 8) soybean 9) barbat'i beans Green Gram (S'a't'ha' Moog) Green gram is known as "mudga" in Sam'skrta¬ "muga" in Bengali¬ and "moog" in Hindi. Mudga giri means "a hill like moog," hence the name Munghyr. There are three varieties of green gram: 1. golden gram (sona' moog) 2. horse gram (ghor'a' moog) 3. grassy gram (gheso moog) The most substantial of these is horse gram¬ but the variety which is the most sweet scenting and palatable is golden gram. The best quality golden gram is grown in the Nadia district of Bengal. Golden gram is a two month crop¬ thus five to six crops can be harvested per annum¬ with some rest period for the land. In the A'nanda Nagar area¬ both golden gram and tapioca may be cultivated. They make a good combination in khicuri (rice¬ pulse and vegetables cooked together) for mass feeding. There were formerly many seasonal green grams¬ but nowadays two main varieties¬ 60 day green gram (s'a't'ha' moog) and rainy season green gram¬ are grown. The period for rainy season gram is during the months of As'a'dha¬ Shra'van'a and Bha'dra. The production and growth of rainy season gram is ordinary. 60 day green gram grows throughout India¬ as does golden gram. Green gram grows best in half sandy (demi-sandy) alluvial soil. It grows well throughout the year¬ except in the rainy season¬ and requires less water than a'us paddy. One special rule for harvesting green gram is that the pods should be plucked singularly¬ one by one. Children may help pluck the pods¬ which should be plucked before they have completely dried. Black Gram (Biri Kala'i) Black gram is known as "mash kalai" in Sam'skrta¬ "biri" or "beuli" in Bengali¬ "mash" in Nepali¬ "mah" or "mash" in Punjabi (the bigger variant is known as "rajmah" or "raj mash")¬ "ureda" in Hindi and "wid" in West Bihar. Black gram is the most nutritious of the pulses and may be eaten regularly¬ but it should be avoided if one's stomach is not in order. Gram is difficult to digest¬ but it gives immediate energy and no reserve energy. Cow pea gives reserve energy but is more difficult to digest than gram. Black gram is called "mash kalai" or "thakuri kalai" in North Bengal. Green gram is more palatable but less nutritious than black gram. The best seasons to grow black gram are the rainy season and autumn¬ for the five months from Ashadra to Ka'rttika. High¬ rain fed¬ alluvial or laterite soil is the best soil for growing black gram. Black gram grows in the western and northern districts of West Bengal¬ certain parts of Andhra Pradesh¬ Tamil Nadu and the Punjab. As a pulse¬ it is very substantial. Bara'¬ bari¬ dahi bara' and pa'pad are all prepared from this pulse. The creepers may be used as animal fodder. They may be cut at intervals of 45 days¬ except one month before the flowering date. Pruning should cease one month before flowering. Since black gram flowers in the month of A'shvina¬ pruning should be stopped in Bha'dra¬ otherwise there will be less flowering and fruiting. After pruning there will be a profuse growth of the branches and sub- branches. It may also be grown as a blended crop. Associated crops that may be grown with black gram are tumeric¬ sugarcane¬ sha'k (green leafy vegetables)¬ brinjal¬ raw chili (green chili) and radish. Khesa'ri The Urdu name "khesa'ri" comes from the Sam'skrta word "khesara." In Tripuri khesa'ri is known as "triputi," in standard Bengali and Hindi as "khesa'ri," in Ra'r'hi Bangla and Assamese as "tewada," and in the villages of Burdwan as "tewada." Khesa'ri may be produced as a pigeon crop along with paddy without tilling the land¬ or it may be grown afresh in the month of A'shvina when watery clay remains in the paddy field. During the paddy harvesting period¬ the upper portions of the khesa'ri should be cut off¬ and as a result new shoots and offshoots will grow. Khesa'ri takes four months to mature and may be grown as a single winter crop after tilling the land. Khesa'ri contains certain poisonous alkaloids in the pulse and the leaves which may cause paralysis in the lower part of the body in both human beings and animals. Children are more likely to contract this disease than others. So¬ khesa'ri should not be eaten. Some people are of the opinion that if khesa'ri is kept in hot water during the night and removed from the water in the morning¬ and then properly rubbed¬ it will be cleansed of the poison. If a new¬ non-poisonous khesa'ri variety could be developed¬ then it may be used as food. Unless this is done¬ it is not advisable to eat khesa'ri¬ even though it is very rich in protein. Peas (Kala'i¬ Mat'ar) Peas are called "kalai" in Sam'skrta¬ "matar" or "kalai" in Bengali and "kerao" by the inhabitants of Bihar. Peas are a very substantial and nutritious food¬ but if they are eaten excessively they may cause skin disease. There are two varieties: 1) small black variety 2) big white variety The small variety is called "t'hikre matar" in Bengali. This black pea may be grown as a pigeon crop in the paddy field¬ like khesa'ri. It may also be used as a single crop by tilling the land and growing it as a winter crop¬ or as a blended crop along with wheat in a ratio of 9:± wheat to peas. The big white variety will produce a winter crop¬ but the land must be tilled properly. Peas take four months to mature¬ that is¬ almost the same amount of time as khesa'ri. The leaf of the pea has more potassium than the green gram leaves (chola' sha'k)¬ but less than caladium. It is also a laxative. Bengal Gram (Cha'na', Chola') Bengal gram is known as "canak" or "buntik" in Sam'skrta¬ "cha'na'" in Hindi¬ "chola'" in Persian¬ Urdu and standard Bengali¬ "rahima'" in Bhojpuri and "but" in Bihar and Ra'r'hi Bangla. There are three varieties of Bengal gram: 1) small black variety (t'hikre cha'na') 2) pink variety (gula'bi cha'na') 3) all white variety (ka'buli cha'na') The black variety of Bengal gram has substantial food value and is the most tasty. The plants are small and the yield is low. It is grown as a pigeon crop with paddy¬ just like khesa'ri¬ black pea (t'hikre mat'ar) and pea¬ if the soil is dry after harvesting the a'man crop. If it is grown as a pigeon crop¬ it should be sown by the 10th of Agraha'yan'a at the latest¬ otherwise boro paddy should be planted. Black Bengal gram takes five months to mature¬ from Ka'rttika to Pha'lguna. Black gram can also be sown as a pigeon crop for research. The pink variety is produced as a winter crop after the land has been tilled. It also takes five months to mature. The all white Bengal gram is all white¬ and bigger¬ less tasty¬ less substantial and less productive than the other varieties¬ but it is a good money earner. It is also produced as a winter crop after tilling the land. Gram has good nutritional value but it is hard to digest. Gram gives immediate energy¬ but not much reserve energy. Horses are often fed gram because it is easy to soak. As long as the gram is in their stomachs¬ they can work¬ but when it is digested they must be fed again. When the gram crop is one month old¬ its leaves and stems should be picked for use as green vegetables (sha'k). This induces side offshoots so that there is more flowering and fruiting. But the practice of plucking the leaves and stems should be stopped one month before flowering. For example¬ if flowering occurs on the 1st of Paus'a¬ then plucking should be stopped from the 1st of Agraha'yan'a. This rule applies to all the pulses. One property of gram leaves is that they are rich in calcium. During teething¬ children often suffer from diarrhea because all the calcium in their diet goes into teeth formation. In the rainy season also¬ children sometimes suffer from diarrhea because the rainwater does not contain many minerals. If a child develops diarrhea and becomes emaciated due to lack of calcium¬ gram leaves will restore his or her health. The leaves should be ground into a liquid¬ which will turn red¬ and this juice should be taken. Also¬ if a nursing mother dies¬ the baby can be fed boiled gram leaves as a substitute for mothers milk. This will prevent the health of the baby deteriorating. Gram husk makes a good cattle feed. Milk giving animals relish gram husk mixed with mustard oil cake (sars'e khal). Lentil (Masoor) In Sam'skrta the word for lentil is "masuri," in Hindi it is "masoor," in Bihar it is called "masoori" and in Bengali it is called "masoor" or "masoori." There are two varieties: 1) small variety 2) big variety The small variety may be cultivated as a pigeon crop along with paddy in the month of October. The large variety may be cultivated along with wheat¬ as a winter crop¬ after the land has been tilled. Lentil leaves have no special qualities although they are sentient. Lentils are to be treated as a static food and must not be eaten by sannyasis. They may be eaten in the daytime by householders (grhis)¬ but they must not be eaten in the night by anybody because at night they ferment easily. Cow Pea (A'rahar) The Sam'skrta name for cow pea is "kandul tandul." In Midnapur it is called "gach kalai." In North Bengal it is known as "alry" in colloquial Bengali. Cow pea is a substantial food crop because it supplies a lot of energy to both human beings and animals¬ although it is a bit hard to digest. Cow pea provides a lot of reserve energy¬ whereas gram gives immediate energy. Cow pea is even more difficult to digest than gram. Horses are not fed cow pea as it is hard to soak. There are two recognised varieties: 1) junior cow pea (ma'ghi ar'ahar) 2) senior cow pea (chaeti ar'ahar) The season for both the varieties is in the month of As'a'dha. It may be produced with the a'us paddy in the month of As'a'dha¬ and after the harvest of the a'us crop it stands alone in the field because it takes nine months to mature. During this period¬ a second associate crop should be grown. It is best if this second crop is a tuber crop. The junior variety becomes fit for harvesting in the month of Ma'gha. The senior variety is harvested in the month of Caetra¬ and has greater food value than the junior variety. The plants may be utilised to produce fuel¬ as fencing or for constructing temporary sheds. The roots of all pulses¬ including cow pea¬ should remain in the ground for some days after the harvesting is finished because nitrogenous compounds are produced in the roots¬ and these help increase the soil productivity after rain. A new variety of cow pea which can be harvested in the month of Agraha'yan'a should be developed. If this is done¬ then the cultivation of this variety should be encouraged. The soil at A'nanda Nagar is good for growing cow pea. Soybean This bean is most conveniently used as a pulse (da'l) along with its special nutritive value of fat. Also¬ as a protein it is about 250% richer than casein. Soybean is an all-season crop and takes about 90-100 days to mature. It may be cropped along with peanut¬ linseed¬ sesame or jute. The cultivation of soybeans should be encouraged at A'nanda Nagar and the surrounding areas because the people there are very poor. Soybeans will help meet their nutritional requirements. It requires two watering periods and soil that is somewhat fertile. Compost (patta pache sa'ra') will suffice as fertilizer. Bengal gram and siima¬ two varieties of pulse grown in Bengal¬ are equivalent to each other in food value¬ but soybean has 2.5 times more food value than either of them. Barbat'i Beans Barbat'i beans are also a very nutritious and substantial food¬ and can be eaten either as a vegetable or as a pulse. In Bengal barbat'i beans are called "barbat'i" as a vegetable and "hanuman karai" as a pulse. They are richer in food value than many other pulses. Barbat'i beans are grown as rainy season and autumn seasons crops. Unlike many other beans¬ which are pre- winter and winter season crops¬ they require some water¬ and more water than the other pulses. Other pulses require water twice in the season¬ while barbat'i beans and wheat have to be watered three times. FIBER CROPS Many different kinds of plants are grown as fiber crops. The fibers themselves vary in their consistency. Some fibers may be rough and are used for making mats¬ baskets¬ string¬ rope¬ etc.¬ while others may be fine and are used for making clothing¬ etc. Some of the more common fiber crops are: 1) linseed (tisi¬ mosne¬ chikana') 2) jute (pa't). The varieties include: 1. miit'ha' pa't' 2. tiita' pa't' (mesta' pa't' is not actually jute) 3) pineapple. Varieties by leaf type include: 1. West Indies 2. East Indies 4) lady's finger (okra¬ bhin'd'i¬ dhenr'ash). The varieties include: 1. green or Varanasi variety 2. indigenous or desi variety 5) agave (sisal¬ Agave americana) 6) banana (kala'). The varieties include: 1. ca'pa' kala' 2. ka'ta'li kala' 3. martama'n kala' The fiber from these crops is collected from the stem of the plant. In the case of pineapple¬ the fiber is processed from the leaves. As a general rule¬ only jute should be soaked in water to extract the fiber. Other fiber crops should be buried under the ground to seperate the fiber from the plant. Linseed (Tisi¬ Mosne¬ Chikana') Linseed is utilised by extracting oil from the seed and fibers from the stalk. The Irish discovered the process of extracting the fibers from the stalk¬ and called the smooth cloth that was produced "linen." It was discovered that if the stalk was allowed to rot a bit¬ the fibers could be separated and made into a fine thread. The straw is also used as cattle fodder. In Ra'r'hi Bangla¬ linseed is known as "mosne," and in Magahi¬ it is known as "chikana'." Linseed is a four month crop and is grown only in winter. It requires much manure¬ and can be grown as a mixed crop with soybean. Both linseed and soybean take a lot out of the soil¬ so it is mandatory to use oil cake manure when growing these crops. After growing linseed¬ dhainca (Sesbania bispinosa) must be grown for two months and then ploughed into the field to help the soil recover. Jute (Pa't) Jute requires a lot of rainfall¬ but it cannot tolerate waterlogging. For this reason¬ it does well on the slopes of Assam. In this respect it is similar to tea. In the month of Vaesha'kha¬ the soil is tilled and the jute seeds are sown in a seed bed. In the month of As'a'dha¬ the a'us variety of paddy is sown¬ and along with it the transplanted jute seedlings should be grown. In the month of Shravan'a¬ both jute and a'us paddy are harvested. The harvested jute is soaked in water for a few days to make it ready for processing. When fully processed¬ the fibers are separated from the stalk and sent for marketing. After the jute has been harvested¬ the land can be used for autumn maize¬ a 60 day crop. Along with this¬ radish and soybean may also be sown. After harvesting the maize and soybean¬ radish is harvested and the land utilised for winter crops such as wheat¬ winter vegetables¬ etc. At the end of winter¬ linseed can be harvested for fiber and the seeds used for oil. Radish seeds can also be used to produce oil. After this¬ dhainca should be sown to restore the fertility of the soil¬ because linseed depletes the soil. Dhainca should be ploughed into the land¬ and in the month of Vaesha'kha¬ jute and a'us paddy should again be sown. This is the rotation for a one year fiber crop. There are two main varieties of jute: 1) miit'ha pa't 2) tiita' pa't Tiita' pa't is better for fiber production¬ but the leaves of miit'ha pa't are also useful as a leafy vegetable (miit'ha pa't sha'k). The seasonal period of jute of inferior quality (mesta' pa't) is the same as that for hemp and flax. The fruit of mesta' pa't¬ kudrum¬ is a red colour¬ and the bark is yellow. Mesta' pa't is not actually jute¬ but it is often called jute. Pineapple Pineapple is another tropical fruit crop known more for its juicy sweet fruit than for its fiber. The fiber is processed from the leaves of the pineapple. In the Philippines¬ pineapple cloth is used to make many products including tablecloths and clothing. Medicines can also be prepared from its leaves. There are two varieties according to leaf type: 1) West Indies¬ which has thorns and green leaves¬ and 2) East Indies¬ which has no thorns and golden leaves. However¬ there are three varieties of pineapple according to the season: 1) rainy season 2) winter season 3) all season The West Indies variety comes from the West Indies¬ and the East Indies variety comes from the area of Singapore¬ Malaysia¬ and Oceania. Both varieties provide fiber for commercial use¬ but the East Indies variety produces better fiber. Where the land is alkaline¬ nothing will grow except pineapple. If all the conditions for growing pineapple have been properly met¬ but the plants will still not produce fruit¬ they should be surrounded by sawdust smoke for half an hour at a time for three days. Lady's Finger (Okra¬ Bhin'd'i¬ Dhenr'ash) Lady's finger or okra is a popular all-season vegetable¬ but it is largelù unknown as a fiber crop. The original home of the lady's finger was Africa. The fruit looks like the finger of a lady¬ hence the English name. It was first introduced into India in the Bhind district of Madhya Pradesh¬ so it is also called "bhindi." In Bihar it is known as "ram taroi," and in Bengali¬ "dhenrash." Lady's finger should not be fried because frying destroys its food value. To separate the fiber from the plant¬ cover the green stalk with soil for three weeks. Fine dhutis or traditional Indian men's garments and other clothing can be made from the fibers. The mature plant is about four to five feet tall. The seeds contain 5% oil. If this proportion can be increased to 10% through research¬ lady's finger can be used to produce commercial edible oil. Lady's finger is already known as a vegetable¬ but if it can be developed as a fiber crop and oil seed as well¬ it will become extremely useful. There are two varieties of lady's finger: 1. the green Varanasi variety¬ and 2. the indigenous variety. To prepare the lady's finger seeds for sprouting¬ put the seeds in warm¬ not boiling water¬ and after the water temperature has returned to normal¬ soak the seeds for 2´ hours. The seeds should then be sown. Agave (Sisal¬ Agave americana) Agave requires only 20 inches of annual rainfall¬ which makes it very useful in dry climates. It originated in East Africa. In Bengal the plants can be acquired from Birbhum district. Agave is a succulent¬ similar to cactus. A thick stalk grows from the ground and on this stalk the flowers appear. The fiber is removed from the stalk and is used for making rope. The best soil for growing agave in Bengal is in the Ma'mud Bazaar Thanar block of Birbhum district. There it has been grown successfully. Agave makes a good roadside plant and is the prescribed plant for filling the gaps between other roadside and riverside plants in A'nanda Nagar. It has the capacity to help check soil erosion. So¬ it should be planted in areas where there is the danger of soil loss through erosion¬ especially along the banks of rivers. Banana (Kala') Banana trees are known more for their fruits than for their fiber. Both the fruit and the flower can be eaten¬ and when the tree is young the inner trunk can be taken as a vegetable as well. The leaves are used for plates or for wrapping food. Sodium carbonate may be obtained from the banana tree by burning the trunk into ash¬ and sodium bicarbonate may be obtained by boiling the ash until the water evaporates. There are numerous products which can be made from the banana tree. The fiber is obtained from the trunk of the tree. The greater the size of a tree¬ the greater the quantity of fiber¬ but the same rule does not necessarily apply for the quantity of fruit produced by the banana tree. Not more than two offshoot saplings should be allowed to grow from one banana tree. The extra shoots should be cut. There are many varieties of banana. Other Fiber Crops Hemp (ganja¬ Cannabis indica) is still grown for fiber although there is some restriction on its production due to its use as a narcotic. Previously¬ the West Bengal government grew Cannabis indica in Nogong¬ but now it is grown in Bankura. It is not necessary for us to grow narcotic plants for research. Rather¬ this should be done by the government. Mat stick is a grass of the paddy group which is used for making mats. It is called "ma'dur" in Bengali. Mat making using mat stick is a large cottage industry in Midnapur. Mat stick is grown in Midnapur and Lontai. Bichali¬ especially the Patna variety¬ is used for making ropes¬ and the seeds are used as animal fodder. Safia grass is used for making baskets and paper¬ notably in Saheb Ganj. Paper crops are related to fiber crops. There are many plants which can be used to produce paper¬ such as eucalyptus¬ bamboo¬ bamboo leaves and sugar cane waste. Bamboo can be used to make everything from paper and furniture to fences and even houses. Paper¬ pitchboard and cardboard can also be made from bamboo¬ and oil paper can be made from both bamboo and maize. CEREALS Cereals are the staple food of human beings. Cereals vary in their type¬ nutritional value and use. In many languages the words for food are synonymous with the words for rice or wheat¬ which signifies the importance of these crops to the people. Rice is an older crop than wheat. Cereals can be divide into two sections ­­ cereals and grasses. Some important cereals include: 1) rice (paddy). The varieties include: 1. a'us -- early¬ a'shu 2. a'man -- haemantik¬ autumn¬ pre-winter 3. boro -- summer 2) wheat 3) barley 4) maize (corn) 5) oats 6) rye 7) millet (ba'jra') Some grass seeds include: 1) china' 2) ka'un 3) kheri 4) na'rka't'ia 5) shya'ma' 6) kada 7) ma'ruya There are other edible grass seeds grown in India¬ but they have little food value. On the border of coarse grains crops like millet¬ it is good to grow hing (asafoetida) and lemongrass. Rye is an oat group course cereal which is grown in cold countries. Rice (Paddy) Rice is one of the most important staple foods in the world¬ and is eaten by millions of people every day. In these places¬ the size of the rice harvest is often taken as an indication of the standard of living of the people. There are many uses for rice and its by-products. Oil can be made from rice bran; cement can be made from de-oiled rice bran; margarine can be made from the oil of rice bran after thickening; biscuits can be made from the waste of milled rice; rice starch can be dehydrated for household and industrial use; alcohol can be made from rice; etc. There are many varieties of rice ­­ there are many domesticated varieties and many wild varieties. The major seasonal varieties grown in India are: a'us paddy¬ which is an early variety; a'man paddy¬ which is an autumn or pre-winter variety; and boro paddy¬ which is a summer variety. These crops take four months or approximately 120 days to mature. The straw also has some utility value according the season: 1) a'man paddy ­­ the straw is long and useful as animal fodder¬ 2) a'us paddy ­­ the straw is shorter and less useful¬ and 3) boro paddy ­­ the straw is very long and animals dislike it. Rice requires suitable soil and climatic conditions. The soil must be clay soil¬ and four tillings are necessary. The right amount of water as per the season must also be present. For boro paddy¬ there should always be one inch of water in the field until flowering starts; for a'man paddy¬ there should always be nine inches of water in the field; and for a'us paddy¬ the soil should always be wet. If these conditions are not met¬ the crop may fail and people may go hungry. The traditional method of planting involves a rotation of these three varieties. Usually¬ it also involves the sowing of at least one pigeon crop. The pigeon crop is sown after the rice has already grown and is standing in the field. The soil is not tilled. The pigeon crop¬ which is usually a pulse like cow pea (ar'ahar) or an oil seed like mustard (ra'i variety)¬ is simply thrown into the field and comes up on its own. When the rice is harvested¬ the tops of the pigeon crop are also cut. This increases the yield of the pigeon crop¬ which continues to grow in the field until it reaches maturity. If the production of rice can be increased by a better method¬ it will be a great benefit to the people of rice growing countries. A'nanda Nagar is demonstrating a new system of rice production whereby four rice crops can be reaped per year instead of one¬ two or three crops. With the system of four crops per year¬ there is no time for the pigeon crops because the field is constantly engaged in rice production. However¬ mixed crops can be grown. Mixed crops such as radish¬ big onion (big piaz)¬ small hot onion (small piaz)¬ and small sweet onion (sachi piaz) may be sown at the time of paddy transplantation. There cannot be mixed crops with a'man because there is too much water in the field. Mixed crops grow best with boro paddy. The system of growing four rice crops in a year requires that the rice seedlings are kept in a nursery for the first month to six weeks of their growth¬ because each rice crop takes four months to mature. Traditionally¬ the seeds are sown in a small plot at random¬ then transplanted in a more systematic manner. With the new system¬ the seeds should be grown in a nursery for the first month¬ and then transplanted in the field. The seedlings should always be transplanted after one month¬ or one and a half months at the most in some rare cases. If the seedlings are kept in the nursery for a longer period¬ the production will decline. Thus¬ in the two and a half to three months of their main growth period¬ the transplanted rice seedlings will remain in the field¬ and the best paddy land will be utilised for the main period of rice production. The four rice crops which can best be grown with this system are a'us¬ a'man¬ early boro and late boro. The production of these crops varies ­­ a'man produces the maximum amount of rice¬ boro a medium amount and a'us the minimum. A'us remains in the field for the period of late Vaesha'kha¬ Jye'stha¬ As'a'dha and the first half of Shra'van'a. A'us should be used as a transplanted crop¬ not as a sown crop. Plant early a'us seedlings in the month of Caetra¬ and late a'us seedlings in the month of As'a'dha. A'us paddy does not require waterlogging the field. Along with the a'us paddy seedlings¬ radish seedlings can also be planted. The radish seedlings should be 15 days old when they are planted. A'man remains in the field for the period of late Shra'van'a¬ Bha'dra¬ A'shvina and the first half of Ka'rttika. A'man paddy requires waterlogging. As the water level rises¬ the plant grows taller¬ but the tip should always remain above the water or the plant will die. If the water is higher than four inches¬ the plant will be healthy but the crop will be poor. A'man paddy requires profuse watering and water accumulation. No mixed crop can be planted with a'man. At this time the big onion seeds are not ready and small onion cannot be planted as it is too small and will go under water. Thus¬ no mixed crops should be sown along with a'man paddy¬ but pisciculture can be practised. Early boro remains in the field for the period of late Ka'rttika¬ Agraha'yan'a¬ Paus'a and early Ma'gha. In the early boro field¬ big onions can be transplanted (sprouted chachi piaú of the preceding period). Big onion is planted with early boro and small sweet onion (sachi piaz) is planted with late boro. Special care should be taken to obtain a big onion type which is a winter crop¬ as it requires less water. The big onion variety can be planted in the early boro field¬ but care should be taken that the top of the big onion plant always remains above the water. 60 day green gram (s'a't'ha' moog) can also be grown with late boro¬ as gram does not need much water. The green gram may be grown as a pigeon crop in the second two months of the transplanted a'us¬ field¬ the second two months of the transplanted early boro field¬ and the second two months of the transplanted late boro field. If irrigation water is not available after the a'man crop¬ instead of the boro crop¬ a pigeon crop can be grown. Late boro remains in the field for the period of late Ma'gha¬ Pha'lguna¬ Caetra and early Vaesha'kha. If there is a sufficient supply of irrigation water available¬ only boro and no pigeon crop should be cultivated after the a'man paddy. Otherwise¬ the field should be engaged for pulse cultivation. Along with late boro¬ onion may be transplanted in the same field for three months. Small sweet onion (sachi piaz) takes four to five months to grow and should be cultivated in the nursery for the first one or two months before being transplanted. Onions need water (and are 67% water themselves)¬ so they may also be harvested in the month of Vaesha'kha along with the late boro. The Sam'skrta word for onion is "sukarkanda," in Hindi it is "piaz," and in Bengali¬ "pianz." With late boro¬ instead of moog¬ onions may be planted. Bangladesh and the Arab countries are good markets for onions. Seeds from big onions are used for producing small onion (chachi piaz)¬ and the kalik or onion tubers from small onion are used for producing big onions. If big onions are to be harvested for marketing¬ then the stalk should be twisted down while it is green and about to flower. If this is done¬ the onion will attain its maximum size. In mid-Vaesha'kha¬ when the boro paddy and onion are to be harvested¬ harvest the rice. If the stalk of the onion is also cut down at this time it is better. After that¬ dig out the onion bulbs¬ then prepare the field for transplantation in mid-Vaesha'kha for a'us paddy. And so the cycle continues. With paddy¬ only the ra'i variety of mustard and yellow mustard can be grown¬ not red mustard. Yellow mustard can only be grown as a mixed crop¬ not as a pigeon crop. To apply liquid manure to paddy¬ wait until one month after transplantation. At this time¬ weeding should also be done. The liquid manure should be applied after the weeding¬ and should always be non-poisonous so that it does not affect pisciculture. Rice seeds of good quality should be collected from Korea¬ Japan¬ mainland China and Thailand. Nunia paddy seeds from North Bengal are the best variety of paddy¬ but their production is very low. The finest and most sweet scented plants are small. Research should be done to increase their yield. Wheat Another staple food eaten by many people is wheat. Wheat is a more recent discovery than rice. Early wheat varieties grow in Ka'rttika¬ Badra¬ Agraha'yan'a and Caetra. The prescribed period for sowing wheat is Ka'rttika¬ Agraha'yan'a¬ or up to the 7th of Paus'a¬ that is¬ not beyond the 21st of December. Late wheat varieties grow in Agraha'yan'a¬ Paus'a and Vaesha'kha. Wheat can be grown together with poppy (ordinary or opium varieties) and mustard. In England¬ wheat and poppy are commonly sown together. If¬ in the month of Pha'lguna¬ easterly winds blow¬ the ripening will be delayed. Wheat cannot be transplanted and is a winter crop¬ a sown crop. For mixed cropping grow lentil¬ pea¬ khesa'ri and poppy (both ordinary and opium) along with it. If these mixed crops occupy 10% of the field¬ they will not hamper wheat production. Rather¬ the production may increase because the mixed crops fix nitrogen in the soil. Wheat requires at least three watering periods during the sowing season. Barley Barley grows on less fertile land. Maize (Corn) Maize is an all-season crop which matures in 50-90 days¬ depending on the variety. The rajendra variety matures in 50-5² days¬ but has no taste. Oats Oats are a winter crop which can grow in land that is not very fertile and requires little watering. They have a lot of food value but are not very tasty. Rye Rye has some characteristics similar to those of oats. It requires extremely chilly weather in order to grow properly. Millet (Ba'jra') Millet is a summer crop which may also be grown in winter. Grass Seeds Most grasses take 60-80 days to mature. They have little nutritional value and are used by poor people to fill their bellies. There are numerous grass seeds grown for this purpose in India: 1) spring crops¬ randomly sown: 1. china' 2. ka'un 2) summer crops: 1. kheri 2. na'rka't'ia 3. shya'ma' 4. kada 5. ma'ruya Many crops also provide good fodder for animals. Some of these crops¬ such as sweet potatoes and black gram¬ can be pruned regularly¬ thus encouraging more growth and providing more animal fodder. In addition¬ some crops need to be grown exclusively for animal fodder. One of the best grasses to encourage milk production in cows is napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum). Wherever possible¬ this grass should be grown on the top of hillocks and hills to conserve the best farm land for other crops. This may be a bit difficult because napier grass needs a lot of water¬ but the attempt should be made.  VEGETABLE CROPS  Vegetables are rich in vitamins and minerals¬ so they are a very important component in the human diet. People can be healthy without eating rice or bread¬ but they cannot remain healthy if they go without vegetables. Even though many vegetables require specific conditions to grow well¬ they are so important that they should be eaten regularly. Without them¬ human beings will be prone to nutritional problems and disease. In the emergency food programme given for all integrated farming projects¬ vegetables are one of the four items¬ and potatoes are another. The other two items are pulses and animal fodder for milk producing animals. Potatoes contain carbohydrate¬ and in an emergency can be eaten as a substitute for cereals. Vegetables have a variety of uses. They can be eaten raw¬ cooked¬ dried¬ pickled¬ etc. Vegetables such as sweet potato or sugar beet can be used for producing sugar; others such as lady's finger can be used for producing clothing fiber; and still others such as radish¬ lady's finger¬ etc. can be used for producing oil. Vegetables usually have seasonal varieties. For example¬ common winter vegetables include cauliflower¬ cabbage¬ sugar beet¬ big onion¬ tomato¬ brinjal¬ lettuce¬ greens¬ carrot¬ etc.; common summer vegetables include the summer varieties of pumpkin¬ cucumber¬ brinjal¬ drumstick¬ gourd¬ etc.; while all-season vegetables include pumpkin¬ cucumber¬ drumstick and different varieties of gourd. For the sake of convenience¬ however¬ vegetables can also be divided into groups which have common characteristics or requirements. For example¬ there are creeping vegetables¬ creeping tuber vegetables and non-creeping tuber vegetables besides winter vegetables¬ summer vegetables¬ all-season vegetables¬ etc.  CREEPING VEGETABLES There are many creeping vegetables. The best organic fertilizer for creeping vegetables is animal compost¬ and the cheapest animal compost is cow dung. The cow dung should be dried and used after it is three months old¬ otherwise insects will breed in it. Fish meal is a good fertilizer for growing gourd. Creeping vegetables include: 1) bottle gourd (la'u). The varieties include; 1. ghat'i la'u 2. round bottle gourd (gol la'u) 3. club bottle gourd (gada' la'u) 4. long bottle gourd (lamba' la'u) 2) pumpkin (kumr'a'). The varieties include: 1. summer season 2. rainy season 3. winter season 3) cucumber (shasha'). The varieties include: 1. summer season 2. rainy season 4) bitter gourd (karela) 5) wax gourd (pat'ol). The varieties include: 1. per'a pat'ol 2. indigenous wax gourd (deshi pat'ol) 3. d'holak pat'ol 4. whitish gourd (pashchima' pat'ol) 5. greenish gourd Junior creepers like cucumber¬ bitter gourd¬ small bitter gourd (ucchey)¬ etc. bear fruit within 25 days¬ while senior creepers like lal kumr'a' and sachi kumr'a' (two varieties of pumpkin) bear fruit within 40 days. Pumpkin¬ cucumber and watermelon seeds may be used as an alternative to nuts. Cucumber and watermelon seeds have little value as oil seeds. The white portion inside the skin of the watermelon may be used as a substitute for flour or maize¬ but it too has very little food value. Bottle Gourd (La'u) Bottle gourd is an all-season creeping vegetable. The varieties include: 1. ghat'i la'u 2. round bottle gourd (gol la'u) 3. club bottle gourd (gada' la'u) 4. long bottle gourd (lamba' la'u) Intermittent plants such as wax gourd should be grown between two bottle gourd plants. The wax gourd cuttings should be planted in As'a'dha¬ Shavrana¬ Bhadra and A'shvina¬ but some special varieties should be planted from As'a'dha to Ma'gha. Wax gourd is an all-season creeping vegetable. Bottle gourd must be grown with a platform from Ashvin to Ma'gha. Creeping vegetables planted in As'a'dha usually give fruit by the 15th of Shra'van'a¬ those planted in Bhadra give fruit from Ashvin to Ma'gha¬ while those planted in Ma'gha give fruit by the 15 Phalgan to the first week of As'a'dha. Long bottle gourd is very tasty¬ but ghoti la'u is the most productive. All varieties of bottle gourd are good for the stomach and can be taken by those suffering from stomach problems or constipation. Pumpkin (Kumr'a')  Pumpkin is known by the botanical name "pumpkin indica". It is called "kaura" in Bihar¬ "ralekha kumr'a'" in Ranchi¬ "cha'l kumr'a'" in Bengali¬ "sachi kumr'a'" in Calcutta¬ and "petha," which refers to both the fruit and the seeds¬ in Hindi. It is also called "chum kumr'a'" by Muslims. Pumpkin sweet is known as "murraba" in Bengali when it is made from chal kumr'a'. Most varieties of pumpkin have little food value. Pumpkin aids digestion¬ is good for the kidneys and neutralises intoxication. If pumpkin is prepared with mustard seeds¬ its food value will be utilised to the maximum. Many preparations¬ such as bhaji¬ charchari¬ pumpkin flour and basin pakora¬ can be prepared from pumpkin. The pumpkin flower can also be eaten. Pumpkin seeds can be cooked and taken as a snack¬ eaten with puffed rice (moori)¬ safflower (kusum) seeds¬ etc. There are three edible parts of the pumpkin: 1. the pulp¬ which has little food value; 2. the skin¬ which has more food value than the pulp; and 3. the seeds¬ which are very nutritious. There are various varieties of pumpkin. For example¬ ghumo kumr'a' is a large variety¬ while chachi or chal kumr'a' is a small variety. There are three seasonal varieties of chal kumr'a': 1. summer season¬ which is grown on the ground; 2. rainy season¬ which is grown on a platform; and 3. winter season¬ which is also grown on the ground. The farmers of Shewra Phuli cut a small hole the size of a hand in the side of each pumpkin at a particular stage of maturity after the seeds have formed¬ and scoop out all the seeds. The piece of pumpkin that was cut out is then replaced. Through this process the size of the fruit becomes very large¬ and ghumo kumr'a' will become even larger. Information on the exact stage at which this process is to be done should be gathered from the farmers. Good pumpkin seeds can also be acquired from Shewra Phuli. Pumpkin is a three month crop. The plant grows for up to 40 days¬ and after 40-45 days it stops growing and starts bearing fruit. So¬ pumpkin starts bearing fruit after approximately one and a half months and continues to do so for the next one and a half months. The fruit matures fully after the plant dries up. Research should be done to see if it is possible to cultivate pumpkin from cuttings¬ like wax gourd. If this research is successful¬ it will signify a new development in agriculture. But such research should be done very carefully¬ because unlike wax gourd cuttings¬ pumpkin plants are very watery. Cucumber (Shasha')  Cucumber is an all-season vegetable which should be grown in sandy alluvial soil. It will not grow well in clay soil. Cucumber is grown successfully in Hoogly and Nadia districts. There are two varieties of cucumber according to the season: 1. summer season 2. rainy season Cucumber is related to the melon group¬ particularly watermelon and musk melon. Their agricultural needs and growing habits are very similar. Water melon and cucumber can grow in sand¬ but they need alluvial soil for sprouting. All-season cucumber (baramasiya) is grown in Faridpur in Bangladesh. Cucumber is also similar to lady's finger. The white portion of musk melon and cucumber can be made into flour. In cucumber¬ the entire pulp is white. Cucumber seeds may be used to produce oil¬ but not on a commercial basis. They may also be eaten¬ but have very little food value. The dried seeds are mixed with cha'na' chura, a popular Indian snack. Bitter Gourd (Karela)  Bitter gourd¬ named after its extremely bitter taste¬ is often eaten fried¬ but it has more nutritional and medicinal value if it is boiled or steamed. It is known mainly as a blood purifier. To prepare bitter gourd seeds for sprouting¬ put the seeds in warm water¬ not boiling water¬ and after the water temperature has retuned to normal¬ soak the seeds for 7² hours. The seeds should then be sown. Wax Gourd (Pat'ol)  Wax gourd is also called squat gourd in English¬ "pat'ol" or "pat'ol laja" in Sam'skrta and "potol" in Bengali. In Calcutta the plant is also called "patal". In Magahi the white variety is called "patal" and the green variety "parval;" in Maithili¬ "paror;" in Bhojpuri¬ "parura" or "parora;" and in Hindi¬ "parval". Wax gourd originated in East India¬ in the Ganga basin in Saheb Ganj¬ Maldha¬ Nadia and Rajmahal. It belongs to the Indica group. 4000 years ago farmers developed wax gourd by crossing telekocho¬ a type of rhizome¬ with khundri¬ a variety of gourd. The Sam'skrta names for telekocho are "bimba" and "magchi," and in Bhojpuri it is called "pilkandi". New varieties of wax gourd may be developed by crossing kundri and telekocho with wax gourd¬ or wax gourd with bottle gourd. Crossing the male wax gourd and the female khundri will make an even better variety. Telekocho is a good medicine for diabetes¬ while khundri is good for digestion. Wax gourd leaves have a bitter taste¬ but the fruit is sweet. The leaves purify the blood and are a good medicine for insomnia and the liver. The wax gourd leaves can be dehydrated to make a powder¬ and the vegetable itself can also be dehydrated. Plants grown from the seeds produced by the vegetable bear very small fruits. Such fruits may be sweet or bitter¬ but the fruits grown from grafted plants are always sweet. For cultivation¬ only grafted plants should be used. In fact¬ all varieties of wax gourd have bitter leaves. There are several varieties of wax gourd grown in Bengal and Bihar and include: 1. Per'a pat'ol¬ which is found along the banks of the Damodar¬ Raina and Khandghosh rivers in Burdwan. It has a long fruit. 2. Indigenous gourd¬ which has a long¬ whitish-green fruit with stripes that are always green. 3. D'holak pat'ol¬ which has fruit that grows to a very big size. It is less productive than the other varieties¬ but has good market value. Dorma is prepared by stuffing this gourd with fish. 4. Whitish gourd (pashchima' pat'ol) which has a small¬ white fruit that does not taste very good. 5. Greenish gourd Wax gourd can be grown during any season¬ but its best planting period is between As'a'dha and Ma'gha. It is good for many diseases and has some food value as well. If wax gourd is grown in a field where betel leaf (baruj pa'n) is grown¬ its medicinal value will be increased. Betel leaf requires half light and half shade. Wax gourd may be grown in sandy soil like melons¬ but the sandy alluvial soil is recommended. When planting wax gourd cuttings¬ follow the same procedure as watermelons and musk melons. A pit one and a half feet deep should be dug in sandy alluvial soil and filled with a mixture of compost and soil in equal proportions¬ then the cutting should be planted. The cuttings should be prepared so that each cutting has two intact nodes¬ one at the base and the other at the top. Each cutting should be planted so that it is slanting with respect to the ground¬ and the lower node should not be covered by soil. After the wax gourd cutting is planted¬ it requires shade and proper watering in all seasons for the first five to six days while the new leaves appear. Within ·-15 days¬ a green sprout will appear on the upper node. After that it does not need much care. The plant starts flowering after one month. In the evenings the flowers bloom all at once at 11:30 p.m. sharp. When the size of the fruit starts becoming small¬ the old plants should be removed and replaced by new cuttings. Good cuttings are available in Burdwan¬ Ranaghat¬ Beldanga¬ Monghyr¬ Farakka¬ Rajmahal and Saheb Ganj. Wax gourd grows well if subterranean water is available¬ otherwise the fields will have to be irrigated. Wax gourd is mostly grown along the banks of the Churni river in Ranaghat¬ but it may be planted along the banks of the rivers in Purulia district. Snakes congregate wherever wax gourd is cultivated extensively. To avoid this iishanmula should be grown because snakes are afraid of its smell. Serpents are also afraid of any copper salt¬ so they will not be found wherever there are deposits of this salt¬ as in Ghatshila and Mohabhandur (near Tata Nagar). Copper sulphate is poisonous for human beings.  CREEPING TUBER VEGETABLES Vegetables which require direct sunlight should not be planted with creeping tubers because the creepers will cover the other plants. For example¬ cauliflower needs direct sunlight¬ so it should not be planted with creepers. Creeping tuber vegetables include: 1) sweet juice potato (sha'ka'lu) 2) sweet potato (misht'i a'lu¬ ra'nga'lu¬ shakkarkand) 3) elephantum potato (kha'ma'lu) Sweet juice potato and sweet potato are also sugar crops and are discussed in that section. Elephantum Potato (Kha'ma'lu) Elephantum potato is a three year crop. It has more food value than sugar beet¬ but it takes longer to grow. It should be pruned every 45 days¬ and the offcuts fed to farm animals. The land may also be suitably used for cultivating bamboo¬ cane¬ banana¬ papaya¬ etc. As this variety of potato is a climber¬ it can use these plants for the purpose of ascending.  NON-CREEPING TUBER VEGETABLES Non-creeping tuber crops include: 1) potato¬ The varieties include: 1. red 2. cream 3. milk white 2) anthurium group 3) caladium group 5) elephant root (elephant foot yam¬ ol) All tuber crops should be harvested only after the stalk dries up. If the stalks of tubers are allowed to grow freely¬ the plants will bear flowers and seeds¬ but the tubers may disappear. The stalks of onion tubers should be twisted down before harvesting. Potato Potato is one of the most common vegetable crops and is a staple food in many countries. It is high in carbohydrate¬ contains many vitamins and is very satisfying. In emergency conditions it can be eaten instead of rice. Potato is especially beneficial when little land is available for cultivation and many people must be fed economically. It can be steamed¬ boiled¬ baked¬ fried and prepared in a number of other ways. Potato chips¬ for example¬ are a popular snack. The black skinned and milk white potato can be dehydrated. There are three main varieties of potato grown in India: 1. red, 2. cream¬ and 3. milk white. The white and black skinned potato grows well in cold climates. There are good varieties of potato grown in various countries which should be brought to India for cultivation. The schedule for planting potatoes is: 1. early potato (red or cream varieties) ­­ A'shvina¬ Ka'rttika¬ Agraha'yan'a¬ and 2. late potato ­­ Paus'a¬ Ma'gha¬ Pha'lguna. To avoid pests¬ potato fields should be prepared with mustard oil cake or castor cake manure. Acidic (ta'k) manure is not good for potato¬ while hybrid animal manure is not as good as the dung of pure bred animals because hybrids are more prone to disease. Cow dung is the best manure. Like other tubers¬ potatoes should be harvested only after the stalk has completely dried up. Potatoes which are harvested before the stalk has dried are called "satha" or 60 day potatoes. They shrink and lose weight. Seeds cannot be grown from 60 day potatoes¬ and the young plant perishes quickly. Anthurium Group Tubers in the anthurium group have a lot of nutritional value¬ but they require three years to grow. Caladium Group Tubers in the caladium group are three month crops and their nutritional value varies. In Bengal¬ many varieties of caladium root crops are available¬ while some varieties are available in the Silli area of Ranchi¬ the Kathua area of Burdwan and the Teliamura area of Tripura. Elephant Root (Elephant Foot Yam¬ Amorphophallus Campanulatus) Elephant root¬ also known as "ol" or "telegu potato," is a nutritious non-creeping tuber. It has more food value than sugar beet¬ but it takes longer to grow. It is similar to potato and it is eaten in much the same way. Dehydrated powder is also prepared from it. Elephant root has many varieties such as water kacu¬ kamal bhoga kacu¬ muci kacu¬ etc.  WINTER VEGETABLES  Winter vegetables include: 1) cauliflower 2) cabbage 3) sugar beet 4) big onion 5) tomato 6) brinjal (eggplant¬ begun). There are two types: 1. thorny 2. non-thorny. The varieties include: a. makdo begun b. snake brinjal (coolee begun) c. winter brinjal (Benarasi begun) 7) lettuce 8) broccoli 9) carrot 10) greens (sha'k) Research should be done on winter vegetable such as cauliflower¬ cabbage¬ sugar beet and carrot to see if they can be grown all year round. Several types of vegetables¬ such as pumpkin and drumstick¬ have winter varieties. Cauliflower  Cauliflower is very popular in India and can be eaten fried¬ boiled¬ steamed¬ raw¬ deep fired with batter (pakora)¬ etc. Cauliflower can also be dehydrated and preserved. Cauliflower needs direct sunlight to grow properly. It should not be planted with creeping vegetables such as sweet potato because they will cover the cauliflower and hide it from the sunlight. The early variety of cauliflower¬ the aghani variety¬ which is grown on the plains of Bengal¬ should be grown all over A'nanda Nagar throughout the year. Cabbage Cabbage can be produced cheaply and is usually sold at a low price¬ which is one reason why it is popular. It is served fried¬ boiled¬ steamed¬ raw¬ etc. It can be dehydrated or pickled and preserved¬ thus it is common in cold countries during winter. In Germany¬ sauerkraut is make from cabbage. The early variety of cabbage¬ the early December variety¬ which is grown on the plains of Bengal¬ should be grown at A'nanda Nagar throughout the year. The karamakala variety of cabbage does not require much direct light¬ and can be planted with creeping tubers like sweet potatoes. Sugar Beet Sugar beet is a three year winter crop. Research should be done to develop varieties which can be grown three time a year. Sugar beet produces large amounts of sugar¬ so if three crops can be grown in a year¬ sugar production will be greatly increased. Seeds can be easily grown from sugar beet where the temperature is zero to ten degrees celius. The best sugar beet seeds are cultivated in Europe¬ but effort should also be made to develop them in the coldest part of A'nanda Nagar. Big Onion The stalk of the onion plant should be twisted down to enable the onion to grow to its maximum size. If the stalks of the onions are allowed to grow freely¬ the seeds that are produced can be used to grow small sweet onions (sachi piaz) which can only be used as seeds. The same applies to ginger. Tomato  Tomatoes are very nutritious¬ but they are also valued for their taste. They can be eaten cooked¬ raw¬ dried¬ pure'ed¬ etc. and are a welcome addition to nearly any dish. When tomatoes are cooked the skin should be removed because it is indigestible. It may cause problems if it is not expelled from the body and lodges in the intestines. The skin can be removed by dropping the tomato into boiling water and then quickly removing it. The skin will then peel off easily. Brinjal (Eggplant, Begun)  The most common varieties of brinjal are violet in colour with a thin skin and a spongy white inner pulp. Brinjal has little nutritional value¬ but it stimulates the digestive juices. It can served fried¬ boiled¬ steamed¬ roasted and even raw¬ with or without the skin. It is well-known vegetable in many countries. There are two types of brinjal and many varieties. The two main types are: 1. thorny¬ which has thorns on the leaves and is very resistant to disease; and 2. non-thorny¬ which is prone to dasa roga¬ a disease which can be prevented with the smoke of burning cow dung cakes. Some varieties of non-thorny brinjal are: a. makdo begun¬ which is good fried as bhaja or puda¬ or fried with neem as neem brinjal¬ and is eaten during the month of Caetra; b. snake brinjal (coolee begun)¬ which used to be eaten by coolees in Howrah¬ and also has a thorny variety; and c. winter brinjal (Benarasi begun)¬ which is a large variety and is also good for making bhaja. Thorny brinjal is of medium size. Non-thorny brinjal is harvested in three different sizes ­­ small¬ medium and large. Brinjal is a three year crop. The first year will produce a good yeild¬ the second year a medium yield¬ and the third year a very low yeild. It is better to remove the old plants after the first or second year and grow new plants. Brinjal takes three months to mature and has three growing seasons: 1. summer ­­ to be sown in the month of Pha'lguna (for example¬ gol brinjal¬ which is non-thorny); 2. autumn -­ to be sown in summer (non-thorny); and 3. winter ­­ to be sown in the rainy season (non-thorny). Summer brinjal usually has a violet colour and a round shape. It is known as "mahada begum" in Bengali¬ "bhote" in Bhojpuri and as "adi" in Maethili. The fruit is quite palatable when fried. Seedlings of summer brinjal should be transplanted in the month of Pha'lguna¬ that is¬ just after winter. The fruits appear after two months in the month of Vaesha'kha. Winter brinjal is very big and is called "Benaras brinjal". It is to be sown in the rainy season. White brinjal is a summer crop¬ but it is a static food. Thorny brinjal is more palatable. Long brinjal is called "brhati," and small round brinjal is called "varttaki". Lettuce Lettuce is popular in occidental countries¬ but is relatively new to India¬ where only early and late lettuce are grown. Broccoli Broccoli is a winter season vegetable which has some similarity with cabbage. However¬ while only one cabbage will grow from one plant¬ two or three broccolis will grow from one plant. European broccoli is the best quality. Though it is a winter season vegetable¬ it can still grow in the Calcutta climate¬ but will not produce seeds. So seeds should be brought from Europe and cultivated in the coldest part of A'nanda Nagar. The procedure for growing broccoli is as follows. In the first week of Ka'rttika the field should be ploughed four time by tractor. Dried cow dung which is at least three months and upto one year old or organic compost should be applied to the field as fertilizer. Then the field should be ploughed three more time by tractor. The broccoli seeds should be planted in rows which are 20 inches apart¬ while the space between each seed in a row should be 10 inches. After the seeds have been planted they should be watered¬ and thereafter¬ they should be watered regularly at 10 day intervals. In the last week of December¬ in the month of Paus'a¬ the crop will be ready for harvesting. Healthy broccoli plants five to six feet tall can be grown in Calcutta¬ but they will not produce seeds. Research should be done to develop varieties which will produce seeds in the warm climate of Bengal. Carrot Carrot grows very well in the fertile land on either side of the Ganges¬ and is a very rich food. To cultivate carrot¬ the field should be ploughed four times by tractor in the month of A'shvina. Dried cow dung or organic compost should be used as fertilizer. The seeds should be soaked in water for twelve hours and then properly dried before they are sown in the field. The crop can be harvested in the last week of Paus'a or the first week of Ma'gha. Carrot is like broccoli in that it will grow in the warm weather of Calcutta¬ but will not produce seeds. So research should be done to develop varieties which will produce seeds in warm climates. Greens (Sha'k) There are various green leafy vegetables called sha'k in Bengali¬ including lal sha'k (tampala or Amaranthus tricolor¬ L.)¬ pui (spinach)¬ palak sha'k or palang sha'k (beetroot¬ Beta vulgaris)¬ summer sha'k (known as "Gandhari tandularak" in Sam'skrta)¬ etc. Green leafy vegetables contain many vitamins and minerals¬ but are most important as a rich source of chlorophyll. Summer sha'k grows very well wherever rice water is thrown onto the soil. Other varieties of sha'k should be sown wherever there is enough water¬ such as beside water pumps¬ to utilise the water and every inch of land.  SUMMER VEGETABLES Some common summer vegetables include: 1) summer season pumpkin 2) summer season cucumber 3) summer season brinjal 4) summer season drumstick 5) summer season gourd Pumpkin¬ cucumber and gourd are creeping vegetables¬ while gourd and pumpkin are also all-season vegetables with summer season varieties. These three vegetables are discussed in the section on creeping vegetables. Brinjal is primarily a winter vegetable although it has a summer season variety and is discussed in the section on winter vegetables. Drumstick is an all-season vegetable which has both summer season and winter season varieties¬ and it is discussed in the section on all- season vegetables.  ALL-SEASON VEGETABLES All-season vegetables include: 1) wax gourd (pat'ol) 2) bottle gourd (la'u) 3) pumpkin (kumr'a') 4) miscellaneous¬ which includes: 1. chal kumr'a' (a variety of pumpkin) 2. bitter gourd 3. cucumber (shasha') 4. water gourd 5) drumstick (shojne). There are two varieties: 1. winter season 2. summer season 6) lady's finger (okra¬ bhindi¬ dhenrash) Many varieties of gourd¬ pumpkin and cucumber are creeping vegetables as well as all-season vegetables¬ and are discussed in the section on creeping vegetables. Lady's finger is also a fiber crop and is discussed in that section. Chal Kumr'a' There is very little food value in pumpkin¬ but chal kumr'a' has much food value. It is very good for the stomach and for stomach diseases. Drumstick (Shojne)  The pods of this vegetable are shaped like drumsticks¬ hence the name "drumstick". Drumstick is called "mounga" in the Scythian language¬ which means "that which grows fast". The Scythians came to India just after the Aryans. The non-Brahmins of Maharastra and Madya Pradesh who are short with a dark complexion are of Scythian origin. The Brahmins of Maharastra are tall and have a fair complexion. "Mounga" is the Scythian word for drumstick¬ and "moongi" is the Scythian word for ants which go on moving continuously. The bark¬ juice and oil of drumstick is a good medicine for skin disease. The oil is also good for kidney problems. If drumstick is eaten in spring and winter¬ people will not contract pox. The stem is beneficial for the gums. Lozenges can be made from the gum of drumstick¬ like the gum of the babul. The taste of drumstick gum is hot and spicy¬ so the flavour should be rectified before making lozenges. Drumstick is a suitable host for silk worms. Caterpillars feed on the plant¬ and when the cocoons have formed¬ they are be removed from the tree. Silk thread is spun from the cocoons. There are two varieties of drumstick: 1. winter season¬ and 2. summer season. The winter season variety flowers in the rainy season. The flowers are white. The stick matures in the month of Vaesha'kha. If the branches are cut and the green sticks planted as cuttings¬ they are sure to succeed. The winter season drumsticks are more tasty than the summers season variety¬ and mounga silk worms like them more. The market value of winter drumsticks is also better. The summer season variety is also known as the all-season variety. The drumsticks are short¬ thick and inferior to the winter variety in taste and market value. This variety flowers all year long and the flowers are cream coloured. In Calcutta¬ it is called "najne," in Burdwan¬ "sojne," and the general name is "baramasiya sojne" or all-season drumstick. When planting drumstick cuttings¬ the upper portion should be covered with cow dung and the lower¬ thicker portion should be placed in the soil. If there is regular rain¬ there is no need to irrigate the plants. In the dry season the plants should be watered two or three times a day¬ which should continue until new leaves appear. Watering should be done so that the entire plant gets wet. This will ensure that the plant grows successfully. Drumstick is everlasting. Like kool¬ all the branches of the drumstick should be cut off in the summer. If the cuttings are planted¬ by the rainy season they will become quite big¬ and in the month of Paus'a silk worms can be grown on them.  SUGAR CROPS Sugar is an important part of the human diet¬ and for many farmers¬ sugar crops are an essential source of income. Sugar is also used in the production of alcohol¬ which has many medicinal and industrial uses. Fermented sugar juice is used to prepare vinegar¬ and the residual materials from vinegar production are used to make yeast. Sugar foods come in many forms according to the type of sugar crop and the degree to which it is refined. For example¬ besides refined sugar¬ there are several forms of liquid and solid molasses (gur)¬ brown sugar or country sugar¬ sugar syrups¬ as well as many other types of sugar sweeteners. The most well-known sugar crops include: 1) sugar cane 2) sugar beet 3) sweet potato, which has two varieties: 1. sweet juice potato (sha'ka'lu) 2. sweet potato (mis't'i a'lu¬ ra'nga'lu¬ shakkarkand) 4) date palm (khejur) 5) Indian palmyra 6) ta'l, which has two varieties: 1. South Indian (ash coloured) 2. North Indian (with three seeds¬ two seeds or one seed) 7) gol 8) Indian olive (mahua'¬ mahul) There are other sources of sugar which are not very commonly used because they are not commercially viable. For example¬ fructose or fruit sugar¬ obtained from fruits such as grapes¬ and sugar obtained from the red sweet variety of African yam¬ are good sources of sugar. The sweet root of the African red yam is a staple food for many people in Africa¬ especially during famine. It has been introduced into India and has many interesting qualities. Research should be done on these and other sugar crops to make them commercially viable. Research should also be done on commercially viable sources of sugar to increase their yeild. High yield varieties of sugar crops should always be grown if they are available. Sugar Cane Sugar cane is a member of the grass group. The long canes are simply peeled and chewed to extract the sweet juice. Mechanical methods of extracting the juice are also used. Previously¬ sugar cane was sown in Ka'rttika¬ but now early varieties can be grown in the month of Pha'lguna. It is preferable if sugar cane is planted in the month of Pha'lguna. The cuttings must be brought from at least 20 kilometres away or the crop will be prone to pests and disease. Solid molasses or gur may be prepared from sugar cane. Country sugar can also be made¬ as well as sugar candy. Research should be done on the early varieties of sugar cane¬ which take five to six months to grow¬ to see if the cane can be grown in a shorter period of time. Also¬ sweet varieties of sugar cane should be grown wherever possible. Good varieties are avalaible from Coimbatore¬ Fiji and Mauritius. Sugar Beet Sugar beet is a root crop. During the last world war¬ the sugar supply to Germany from Mauritus and India was blocked¬ so sugar beet was used as a substitute for sugar cane. Elephantum potato (kha'ma'lu) and elephant root yam (ol) have more food value than sugar beet¬ but they take longer to grow. Sweet Potato Sweet potato is a creeping tuber. It can be planted among many other plants¬ including fruit trees. It grows very well with bamboo because it can climb the bamboo poles. There are two main varieties of sweet potato: 1) sweet juice potato (sha'ka'lu) 2) sweet potato (mis't'i a'lu¬ ra'nga'lu¬ shakkarkand) Where sweet potatoes are grown¬ the land may also be used for the cultivation of bamboo¬ sugar cane¬ banana and papaya. The early variety of sweet potato should be grown from A'shvina to Agraha'yan'a¬ and the late variety from Paus'a to Pha'lguna. Almost any space between two other plants can be used to grow sweet juice potato from the month of A'shvina to Pha'lguna. A good quality solid molasses can be produced from sweet juice potato. Dehydrated sweet potato powder can also be made. Date Palm (Khejur) Several palms produce juices which can be converted into sugar. Solid molasses (gur)¬ country sugar and half concentrated juice (used as a beverage) can all be prepared from date palm. The Bengal variety of date palm is not good as a food¬ but it is excellent for producing plant juice from which we can get good quality solid date palm molasses (khejur gur) and date palm sugar (chini). The juice produced on our farming projects should not be used for preparing fermented juice (khejur tadi). Date palm molasses is 125 times more substantial than refined sugar¬ but for diabetics¬ refined sugar is more harmful than molasses. Indian Palmyra Indian Palmyra is another palm which produces sweet juice for making sugar. Sugar¬ solid molasses¬ hard molasses (bheli gur) and refined molasses (khadesri) and many other products can be made from the Indian palmyra tree. Half concentrated palmyra juice in an airtight tin can be produced for sale. Sugar candy can also be made. To plant the Indian palmyra tree¬ make a waist deep pit and fill it up with an equal mixture of soil and compost. Plant the seeds or seedlings. After some time¬ when the soil goes down¬ fill it up again with soil. If the plant dies¬ replace it with a larger seedling. The same technique can be used to plant banyan. Indian Palmyra is to be planted alternately with banyan as a riverside plantation. Ta'l There are two varieties of ta'l according to colour: 1) South Indian -­ ash colour 2) North Indian ­­ found in Howrah¬ Midnapur¬ 2´ Parganas¬ and Patna. The North Indian variety may be divided into three types: 1. three seeds -­ black on top¬ red pulp 2. two seeds -­ half red¬ half black¬ red pulp 3. one seed ­­ top reddish¬ pulp reddish¬ not good for eating The three seeded ta'l is called doma ta'l or hadi ta'l. It is found in the Howrah¬ Midnapur¬ 2´ Parganas and Patna districts. No special soil preparation is required for ta'l. It grows in normal soil¬ although wet¬ alluvial soil is best. In Howrah and Midnapur districts¬ solid molasses is made from it. Fermented juice (tadi)¬ not solid molasses¬ is usually made from the Patna variety. Solid molasses¬ fermented juice (tadi) and yeast can all be made from ta'l. It grows within 15 miles of either side of the Ganges¬ but ta'l cannot be grown in Gaya. Gol Solid molasses and other sugar products can be prepared from gol¬ but it will not grow successfully in A'nanda Nagar. It needs saline soil. In the past¬ Calcutta and the surrounding localities were a salt water swamp¬ like the Sundabans. This was caused by a flood which innundated the region with salt water. As a result¬ many gol trees grew in Calcutta and the surrounding area. Salt Lake was named after the salty water in eastern Calcutta¬ and Gol Park derived its name from the many gol trees that once grew in southern Calcutta. Now gol trees are mainly confined to the Sundabans. Indian Olive (Mahua'¬ Mahul) Indian olive is important both as an oil crop and as a sugar crop. The source of sugar in Indian olive is the flowers¬ from which solid molasses is made¬ and this can be refined into sugar. The dehydrated flowers can also be made into flour.  FRUITS  Fruits are a vital part of the human diet¬ and the easiest food for human beings to digest. Many fruits have a purifying and cleansing effect on the body¬ and most fruits are high in vitamins and very nutritious. Some fruits have medicinal value as well. In an emergency planting programme¬ cereals may be omitted from the human diet¬ but fruits should not be neglected. This shows their importance. The following system can be used for planting big¬ medium and small categories of fruit trees: 1) big trees should be planted in an area of 15 square feet. 2) medium trees should be planted between two big trees in the middle. That is¬ one medium tree should be planted at a distance of · 1/² feet from the two big trees. 3) small trees should be planted in between two big trees at a distance of every 5 feet. That is¬ two small trees may be planted between two big trees. Ginger¬ tumeric and sweet potato should be planted in the shade of fruit trees in the prescribed rotation. Some examples of fruit trees include: 1) lemon 2) sweet lime (mussambi) 3) orange 4) non-Indian black plum (ja'mun¬ Java plum) 5) custard apple 6) ka'ba'b cini 7) chalta 8) mulberry (tute) 9) coconut 10) a'mla' 11) pomegranate (beda'na') 12) mango (a'm) 13) mangostein 14) papaya 15) melon (thuja) 16) grapes (angur) 17) pineapple 18) banana 19) Indian plum (kool) 20) litchi 21) jackfruit 22) cha'mal¬ etc. When preparing the land for horticulture¬ the following system should be followed. The land should first be divided into blocks so that 25 big fruit trees can be planted in each block. Then¬ as many medium and small fruit trees as possible should be planted in the remaining area. The planting method should be as follows. First plant one big tree¬ one medium tree¬ one big tree¬ one medium tree¬ etc. After the medium trees have been planted¬ start planting small trees in between the big trees ­­ one big tree¬ two small trees¬ one big tree¬ two small trees¬ etc. The small trees can also be planted in association with medium trees. Before the trees are planted¬ deep pits should be dug in the ground and a good amount of compost and some calcium should be put into them. Calcium should be used when planting fruit trees¬ and especially with sour fruits because it makes the fruit sweet. Research should be done on the following trees: 1) walnut 2) chestnut 3) chilgoza 4) persimmon 5) cherry 6) apricot 7) fig 8) pesta 9) Indian olive and it by-products Fruit trees conserve a lot of water in their fibrous root systems and fruits. They can be planted as riverside trees and beside paddy fields to help conserve water. However¬ only tall and non-shady fruit trees should be planted beside a paddy field¬ because they will not block the sunlight from the crop. There are many products which can be developed from fruit trees besides those already known. Some of the more common fruits are mentioned below. Lemon Although the lemon is hardly ever eaten in the form that it comes from the tree¬ the sour fruit is widely used for its juice and peel. It has medicinal qualities and is generally used to cleanse the body¬ help purify the blood and alleviate acidity. There are two kinds of citrus fruits according to their skin type ­­ the orange group¬ in which the skin can be easily peeled from the fruit¬ and the lemon group¬ in which the outer skin cannot be easily peeled off. The fruits in this group should be cut to extract the juice. Plants of the lemon group include sweet lime (mussambi)¬ batabi (pomelo)¬ lemon¬ etc. and are recommended for diabetes. Fruits of the orange group should not be taken by diabetics. Sweet Lime (Mussambi) Sweet lime is a member of the lemon group and is sometimes referred to as "mussambi." It is grown for its sweet¬ juicy fruit. Orange The orange is one of the most commonly available fruits in the world. There are many varieties which differ in skin colour and thickness¬ taste¬ quantity of juice¬ etc. To grow oranges successfully¬ no special soil conditions or prescribed amount of rainfall is required¬ except that sufficient quantity of calcium must be present in the soil. The calcium will make the fruit sweet. 53 orange trees can be planted to one bigha (approximately one third of an acre). Medicine can be prepared from the juice and skin of the orange. For example¬ a good medicine to reduce fever is 50% orange juice and 50% warm water. If this is taken several times a day¬ it will be very beneficial for the patient. This preparation is also good for treating influenza. Non-Indian Black Plum (Ja'mun¬ Java Plum) Black plum is also known as "jambolana" or "Java plum," and is a popular fruit. It is used in homeopathy and allopathy to treat diabetes. The juice tastes very good. Custard Apple The custard apple has a creamy¬ sweet fruit which is popular in tropical countries. The variety from the Philippines should be imported into India because it has a larger and better quality fruit than the local varieties. Custard apple helps to prevent erosion and can grow in places where the soil is a bit rocky. Ka'ba'b Cini  Ka'ba'b cini is a bush which is often used as a boundary plant. The fruit has a spicy taste. Chalta The fruit of chalpa is usually made into chutney. It can be grown as a roadside plant as well as a boundary plant. Mulberry (Tute) Mulberry is widely used as a host for silk worms. The worms eat the leaves of the plant and produce garad silk. Coconut The coconut palm is very common in most tropical countries. Spiritual aspirants should emulate the coconut ­­ they should be hard and resilient on the outside¬ but soft and sweet on the inside. There are numerous products which can be produced from the young or fully ripe coconut. Coconut milk is a standard base for cooked dishes in Southeast Asia and South India. Shredded coconut¬ sweetened or plain¬ is a popular ingredient in biscuits¬ cakes and all types of baked goods. Coconut is good for digestion and helps to alleviate constipation. It has other medicinal uses as well. Green coconut water (dabh) is rich in potassium¬ so it has a sweet taste; but it should be taken only from the authentic source. Vendors sometimes replace the coconut water with ordinary water through a syringe. A particularly good variety of coconut is the Paraguaya coconut. Research should be done on this variety and it should be grown in India. A'mla' A'mla' has a sour fruit which is usually boiled or made into pickle. The oil helps digestion and can be used for hair oil. Pomegranate (Beda'na') Pomegranate has two varieties: 1) red pomegranate (dalim) 2) white pomegranate Some people call red pomegranate "red corn." The fruit is comprised of many small flesh covered seeds¬ somewhat resembling corn¬ which are packed in undulating rows inside the skin. The fruit of both varieties can be preserved and used in the preparation of medicines. Mango (A'm) Mango is a very popular fruit wherever it is grown. It is eaten as a green or fully ripe fruit¬ dried¬ candied¬ pickled¬ and made into various jams¬ jellies¬ dehydrated products¬ juices and other items. It is very delicious. However¬ ripe mangoes should not be over eaten because they generate heat in the body¬ cause boils on the skin and dysentry. Only two or three ripe mangoes should be eaten in a day. The inner portion of the mango seed contains harmful acids and alkaloids. Poor people use flour ground from mango seeds without removing these substances. Ways should be devised to remove them¬ so that the seeds can be used to make flour without any harmful effects. As much as thirty percent of the maize flour sold in the market place in India is adulterated. The adulteration is done with mango stone¬ tamarind seed and soap stones. Soap stones are soft earthy stones which are very injurious to health because they can cause kidney stones. To test the purity of maize flour¬ knead the maize in a copper vessel (or kausa) and keep it in the vessel for some time. If the flour is adulterated¬ it will leave a blackened mark in the vessel. Mango and litchi grow successfully in the Nadia district of Bengal. Mango¬ like all fruit trees¬ has fibrous roots which help to conserve water and protect the soil. It also makes a good roadside plant. Mangostein Mangostein is a tropical fruit with a thick purplish skin and white flesh which contains much juice¬ but it is not well known around the world. Flour can also be made from mangostein. Papaya Papaya is another very popular tropical fruit¬ and it is used to make many edible¬ medicinal and other products. When it is still green¬ papaya can be cooked as a vegetable¬ and when it is ripe¬ it becomes a bright yellow or orange-red fruit. The medicinal qualities of papaya are well-known¬ and in particular¬ it is used to make pepsin to treat jaundice. Pepsin is prepared from the leaves of papaya. Latex can also be prepared from papaya¬ but it should not be extracted from the fruit. To make papaya latex¬ wait until the green papaya is about to mature¬ then pluck it from the tree. The latex is obtained from the tree itself after the papaya has been removed. Papaya latex is used medically to cure ulcers¬ as a liver tonic and to help loosen stiff¬ rheumatic joints. Melon (Thuja) There are many types of melons¬ but here the word melon refers to the five plants of the melon group. These plants are: 1. watermelon (tarbuj) 2. bottle melon (khedi) 3. musk melon (kharbuj) 4. bottle musk melon (kakur) 5. serpentine melon (kakri) -­ from Bihar These plants should be sown from December to March. The completion period is just before the rainy season starts. Melons grow best in sandy soil (bele mati). Only one rainfall is sufficient for their cultivation. While sowing the seeds of this plant group¬ khosta¬ an oil seed of the sesame group found in the Birbhum district of Bengal¬ should also be sown. Khosta is an oil plant that grows with a meagre amount of water. Research should be done on the khosta plant. Melons grow during the first one and a half months after planting¬ and bear fruit during the following one and half months¬ hence the season lasts 3 months. Melon varieties from India and all over the world should be planted at A'nanda Nagar. Cucumber (sosa)¬ water melon and serpentine melon should be planted from December to March. Water melon flowers at ´ p.m. Maximum production occurs in Baruipur. The water melon fruit is of medium size¬ so research should be done on how to increase its size. Satpatia water melon is also small in size and the fruit grows in clusters. Latex from water melon is good for the liver. The seeds can be used as a kind of nut and mixed in cha'na' chura (a popular Indian savoury snack). Oil may be produced from the seeds¬ but this process is not yet commercially viable and should be developed. Musk melon and watermelon should be sown in pits in sandy soil. A pit should be dug about one and a half feet deep and filled with a mixture of compost and soil in equal proportions. The melon seed should be planted in this pit. Soon the roots of the seedlings will reach water and then their rate of growth will accelerate. Musk melon should be planted in the summer. Safed musk melon is a small¬ sweet scented variety and it is grown on the banks of the Gomati river in Lucknow. Grapes (Angur) Grapes are known as "draksha" in Sam'skrta¬ "angur" in Bengali¬ "inab" in Persian¬ "iinab" or "angur" in Urdu and "angur" in Hindi. The fruit bearing portion of the plant is called a vine ­­ a grapevine. The fruit is simply called grape. Fermented grape juice is called wine. The Latin name for wine is "winum glacia." Some medicinal alcoholic beverages can be made from grapes. A wine called "asoke risaja" used in the treatment of female diseases can be prepared from overripe grapes and sold to medicine factories. Medicines can also be prepared from dried and dehydrated grapes. Grape sugar (drakshasarkara) can be made from grapes¬ but it is not presently commercially viable. Seedless grapes are generally grafted¬ but seeded grapes may or may not be grafted. Raisins (kishmish) can be made from seedless grapes after they have been dehydrated. Seeded raisins (munacca) can be made from seeded grapes after they have been dehydrated. In Bihar¬ people use seeded raisins as a nutritious sweet (mewa') during festivals. For a long time grapes have been eaten as fresh¬ dried or candied fruit; taken in the form of wine or vinegar; enjoyed in sweets¬ cakes¬ etc. Research will improve the preparation of grape products and discover more uses for grapes. Some varieties of grapes that are suitable for research include: 1) round¬ big 2) round¬ small 3) long¬ big 4) long¬ small 5) blue¬ big 6) Chinese, small 7) German 8) Iberian 9) French 10) Italian Sandy¬ reddish soil is good for growing grapes. Grapes can be successfully grown in Ra'r'h¬ but bone dust should be added to the soil to make the fruit sweet. Grapes should be grown on a slanting trellis or platform (machan). Good varieties of grapes can be found in Andhra and Maharashtra. On the border of the vineyard the following plants should be grown ­­ large cardamon (bara ellaichi)¬ ipekak (a medicinal plant)¬ cinkona (the source of quinine and other anti-malarial preparations)¬ and hing (asefoetida). Pineapple  According to leaf type¬ there are two varieties: 1) West Indies 2) East Indies The West Indies variety was brought to Europe by the Portuguese from its original home in the West Indies. The Portuguese also brought tuberoses¬ kena flower and some varieties of banana from the West Indies. The West Indies variety of pineapple has thorns on both the fruit and the plant. The East Indies variety comes from Singapore¬ Malaysia and Oceania¬ and the fruit is big with less thorns. The Baruipur varieties also come from the same region. These varieties are golden in colour. The Tripura and Assam pineapple varieties are from the East Indies. Some good sources of pineapple outside India include: 1) Central America 2) northern part of South America 3) all of South East Asia Some good sources of pineapple inside India include: 1) Baruipur 2) Silchar 3) Agartala 4) Lumding 5) Nogaon Pineapple tops are also available from the Calcutta markets. The Tripura¬ Siliguri and Baruipur varieties all grow well in India. At A'nanda Nagar¬ however¬ pineapples will not bear fruit¬ due to the low amount of rainfall¬ which is below 60 inches per annum. However¬ if the plants are showered with water¬ they will be fooled into believing that it is raining and induced to bear fruit. If the same quantity of water is given to the plants through irrigation¬ they will still not bear fruit. There are three seasonal varieties of pineapples -- rainy season¬ winter season and all-season. Sloping land and alkaline soil are best for maximum production. Normally¬ pineapple starts bearing fruit after growing for one and a half to two years. If the mature pineapple plants are kept in a glass house and smoke is added¬ they can be induced to bear fruit within one week. Banana The banana tree grows as both a wild and domesticated plant. It has sweet¬ tasty and easily digestible fruit¬ and the fruit and plant can be eaten in many different ways. For example¬ the fruit can be eaten raw¬ boiled in sugar syrup or fried¬ and the flowers and stem can be eaten as vegetables. It is also very useful¬ and products like banana chips¬ banana powder¬ sodium carbonate¬ sodium bicarbonate¬ clothes¬ plates¬ etc. can be manufactured from various parts of the plant. Clothes can be made from fibers in the trunk¬ and plates can be made from the leaves. Usually the banana tree is called "plantain" and the ripe fruit is called "banana." In the case of the kaca kala' variety¬ both the plant and the fruit are called "plantain." Banana originated in South Africa. There are numerous varieties of banana¬ some of which are: 1) capa kala'¬ which bears fruit twice a year, 2) ka'ta'li kala'¬ which bears fruit twice in 1¸ months, 3) martama'n kala'¬ which bears fruit once a year. Bhusawal and martama'n are good quality varieties¬ but ka'ta'li is not as good. There are also many good varieties grown outside India. Banana plants should not be allowed to grow too close together. It is best to plant them 10-1² feet apart. If they propogate on their own and grow densely¬ they will quickly become undomesticated. Wild bananas have large¬ hard seeds¬ but domesticated bananas have very small¬ inconspicuous seeds. Indian Plum (Kool) The fruit of the Indian plum is tasty¬ but the plant also has other uses. It is used as a host for both silkworms and lac insects. Lac should not be planted in all the trees in an orchard at the same time, otherwise the production of fruit will decline. Litchi Litchi is a sweet tropical fruit which looks like a strawberry¬ except that the outside of the fruit has a thin shell which must be removed in order to eat the flesh. Litchi can be preserved and grown successfully in the Nadia district of Bengal. Jackfruit Jackfruit is a large tropical fruit which is very nutritious. It can be eaten ripe as a fruit or unripe as a protein rich vegetable. Inside the yellow flesh are large starchy seeds. Three hundred years ago there were no potatoes in India. In those days the seeds of the jackfruit were eaten. These seeds are two and a half times more nutritious than potatoes. From the dried flesh of jackfruit a kind of vegemeat can be made. Cha'mal Cha'mal is a wild cousin of the jackfruit. Although it is similar¬ it is not as tasty. Vegemeat can also be made from the dried flesh.  NUTS Most nuts are rich in protein and very beneficial for vegetarians. There are quite a few nuts which should be grown on our farm projects. They can be eaten or sold as a cash crop. Some of the nuts which should be grown at A'nanda Nagar are pistachio¬ almond¬ walnut¬ chestnut and cashew. Cashew is more a South Indian tree¬ but it can also grow in Purulia district. The cashew nuts grown in India are usually sent to Madras for processing. Some nuts like walnut and chestnut should be the subject of further research.  TEA¬ COFFEE AND COCOA In olden times¬ Buddist Tantrics used to take a drink which was made from the green leaves of a bush boiled in water. The beverage kept them warm and gave them instant energy. These Tantrics generally lived in the area of Assam. Modern tea originated in Assam from this beverage. In Chinese tea the green leaves are generally boiled and taken with butter¬ but in India the boiled leaves are taken with sugar and milk. The Sam'skrta name for tea is "kamal" and the Chinese name is "cinya'." In India various black teas are grown and are commonly called "cha'." The British took tea from India and popularised it throughout the world. Tea is more popular than coffee in England¬ but not as popular as coffee in South America. Tea requires more water than coffee to grow properly¬ but it cannot tolerate waterlogging. It grows well on the slopes of Assam. Tea does not require special soil or a lot of rainfall¬ but the rainwater should not be allowed to accumulate around the plant. There are three main varieties of tea grown in India: 1) Assam variety 2) Darjeeling variety 3) Kerala variety Assam tea is the most tasty¬ while Darjeeling tea has the most flavour but the least taste. The tea from Ghana is less tasty than Indian tea¬ but is more popular in the world market. The main reason for this is that some Indian businessmen adulterate the tea with tannin. Consequently¬ it has lost its popularity. In French tea is called "te." Once upon a time¬ a shepherd in an Arab country observed some thieves frequently going to a certain place at a fixed time. On their return¬ he noticed that the thieves always looked sleepy. The next time they came he decided to follow them. Undetected¬ he watched them eat the leaves of a particular plant. Later he also ate the leaves¬ but they did not taste very good. So he took some of the leaves¬ fried and boiled them¬ after which they became tasty. This is how coffee developed. Black coffee is coffee which has been fried a lot. This type of coffee is intoxicating and injurious to health. If you take it you will feel sleepy¬ but you will not be able to sleep. Sometimes students take black coffee during their examinations to enable them to study better. But because the coffee makes them feel sleepy¬ they cannot assimilate what they have read. Cocoa is less intoxicating than coffee and tea¬ but if it is taken daily it will become addictive.  COARSE GRAINS Coarse grains include: 1) rice 2) wheat 3) barley 4) maize (corn) 5) oats 6) rye 7) millet (ba'jra') 8) tapioca. The varieties include: 1. s'imul a'lu (Bengal) 2. simarkand (Bihar) 9) arrowroot Many coarse grains are also cereals¬ and include rice¬ wheat¬ barley¬ maize oats¬ rye and millet. These grains are discussed in the section on cereal crops. Tapioca  Tapioca is more nutritious than sweet potato (shakkarkand). It is usually prepared by powdering the roots of the plant into small granules. Other products like papar and bari can also be made from tapioca. There are two varieties of tapioca: 1. s'imul a'lu (Bengal) 2. simarkand (Bihar) Arrowroot Arrowroot is a non-creeping tuber of the potato group. It is nutritious and is commonly used as a tickener. It has medicinal qualities as well. Soti is a non-creeping tuber of the potato group and is often preserved as a kind of pickle. It is also a source of chewing gum. Soti will not grow successfully in Ra'r'h and its food value is much less than that of arrowroot.  SPICES AND COMMON COOKING ADDITIVES Some common spices include: 1) garlic (rasun) 2) onion (piaz) 3) ginger (ada) 4) chili (lanka) 5) turmeric (halud) 6) radish (mula). The varieties include; 1. summer season 2. rainy season 7) cardamon (ellaichi) 8) cinnamon (darucini) 9) cumin (mongrela¬ kala jiira) 10) basil (tulsi) 11) nutmeg (ja'yaphal¬ Myristika fragrans) 12) anise (saonp¬ mauri) 13) cloves (lavanga) Garlic (Rasun) All the parts of the garlic are static. The Sam'skrta name for garlic is "rasona". It has five out of the six tastes (rasas). The six tastes are: tikta ­­ neem (bitter); katu ­­ chili (hot and spicy); kas'ava ­­ plantain (alkaline); lavan'a (salty); amala (acidic); and madhu (sweet). Garlic has all of the tastes except acidic. Garlic is indigestible¬ so it comes out in the perspiration. Thus¬ it helps in the expulsion of hidden diseases. Yet¬ it has negative effects also¬ so it is not to be eaten by persons following a sentient diet. Those who eat garlic emit a very foul odour. Garlic can be used as a medicine¬ but it is not necessary to eat it as a food. In very cold climates static food becomes mutative¬ and mutative food becomes sentient. In such climates householders (grhis) may take garlic. There is a children's rhyme about garlic. A bird sang a song and everyone heard different things. The bird sang¬ "Na na na na nanan na". The scholar heard¬ "Rama¬ Siita¬ Dasharath". The mullah heard¬ "Allah¬ Mohammad¬ Hazarat". The wrestler heard¬ "Dan¬ Baithaka¬ Kasarat". The cook heard¬ "Rasun¬ Piaz¬ Adarak". Garlic is propagated by planting bulbs (kovas). Each bulb should be planted so that three quarters is below the ground and one quarter is above the ground. The quarter above the soil must not be buried under any circumstances¬ and it must also remain above water during irrigation. The water requirement for garlic is less than that of small onion (chota piaz)¬ but more than that of big onion (bara piaz). Garlic can be cultivated on the border line of wheat and early boro paddy fields. When growing garlic with rice¬ sow the garlic in two rows so that it forms equilateral triangles. One line of safflower seeds (kusum biija) should be sown between the rows of garlic so that each seed is in the middle of one triangle. Research should be done on garlic to pinpoint its medicinal properties¬ and to ascertain whether there is any possibility of producing garlic oil from the leaves. Onion (Piaz)  The Sam'skrta word for onion is "sukarkanda". In Hindi it is called "piaz" and in Bengali "pianz". Like garlic¬ onion has some medicinal value. It helps to bring out hidden diseases¬ although it also has negative effects. The medicinal value of onion minus its negative effects can be utilised if onion is used in ways other than eating it¬ such as in the form of onion oil. Onion is also a good blended crop with rice in certain seasons. Onions can be sold at good prices in Bangladesh and Arab countries. The method for rotating onion crops is as follows. In the month of Paus'a¬ onion seeds are sown. The seedlings should be transplanted along with late boro paddy in the month of Ma'gha. In the middle of Vaesha'kha¬ the late boro should be harvested. After that¬ the onions should be dug up. These small onions (chota piaú or kali piaz) are very pungent. The soil requirements for small onions are the same as for a'man paddy¬ that is¬ clay soil. These small onions should then be sown with early boro paddy. Small onion is a winter crop. The top can be used as a green leafy vegetable. After harvesting early boro¬ the large onion bulb (boro piaú kanda) can be dug up. The stalk of the boro onion (boro piaz) should be twisted down fifteen days before the bulb is dug up¬ and the bulb should be dug up only after the stalk has dried. Big onion (bara piaz) is tasteless¬ but it may be considered pungent if it brings tears to the eyes. Some of the small onions which are sown on the border of the paddy fields should be left for flowering. Seeds will grow from these plants¬ but once the seeds have formed¬ the bulb will disappear. These seeds can again be sown in the month of Paus'a for small onion (chota piaz). The onion stalks should be twisted down so that within a short time the plants die and the tubers become ready for harvesting. If the stalks are allowed to grow¬ they will bear flowers and seeds¬ but the tubers may disappear. From these seeds¬ small sweet onions (chachi or sachi piaz) can be grown which can also be used as seeds. If big onions are going to be harvested for marketing¬ then the stalk should be twisted down while it is green and about to flower. This process will ensure that the onion attains its maximum size. Onions are 67% water and need a sufficient supply of water to grow properly. The seeds from big onions are used for producing small sweet onions (chachi piaz)¬ and the onion tubers (kalik) from the small sweet onions are used for producing big onions. Small sweet onion takes four to five months to grow and should be developed in a nursery for the first one or two months before being transplanted. Ginger (Ada) Ginger is a popular cooking additive. Many products can be made from ginger including syrup¬ sauce¬ marmalade¬ liquid extract¬ etc. Ginger processed in cow dung water is called "sout ada" and is used in Ayurvedic medicine. Ginger can grow in either the sun or the shade¬ but it should be planted in the month of Pha'lguna. Ginger stalks¬ like onion stalks¬ should be twisted down so that within 15 days the plant dies and the tuber is ready for harvesting. The best ginger is found in Tripura and Mizoram. Chili (Lanka) Chili is very common in India. There are many varieties which vary in size¬ spiciness and growing conditions. For example¬ the kacha lanka variety is a three year crop. In the first year it will produce a good yield¬ in the second year a medium yield¬ and in the third year a very low yield. Thus¬ the plants should be removed after the second year and new ones grown. Dhani lanka is not suitable as a blended crop because it grows very large and affects the nearby plants. The indigenous and suryamukhi varieties have similar yields¬ but the dhani lanka variety produces more than either of these two. The indigenous¬ suryamukhi and dhani lanka varieties are all summer varieties of green chili. There is also a red winter variety which is often dried and made into powder. Chili can also be made into a spicy sauce. Turmeric (Halud) Turmeric is commonly made into powder and used as a spice. When taken raw¬ it is poisonous. It should be taken only after it has been processed in cow dung water. Raw turmeric can be converted into sunte halud by boiling it with cow dung. Turmeric requires half sun and half shade. The best turmeric tubers are found in Patna. Radish (Mula) Radish is a 45 to 60 day crop. Its original home was Japan and it first came to India 3,000 years ago. Its food value is less than that of potato¬ although it is rich in mineral salts and is good for the blood. It is a general purifier. It is not easily digestible¬ but it helps digestion because it stimulates saliva secretion. It can be eaten raw¬ cooked¬ pickled¬ etc. The leaves of mustard and radish are similar¬ but all varieties of mustard have yellow flowers while radish has white flowers. The green leaves of radish (mula sha'k) are a good food¬ but the green leaves of mustard (sarse' sha'k) are not. Where there is a dense growth of radish plants¬ they should be thinned out. The leafy off-cuts can be eaten as a vegetable (mula sha'k). The varieties of radish include: 1. summer season 2. rainy season Radish seeds are larger than mustard seeds and can be used to produce oil¬ although they are not usually used for this purpose. Radish oil is pungent¬ like mustard oil. Radish oil cake makes a good manure. If radish tops are planted¬ they will produce seeds and flowers. The summer variety of radish can also be grown with a'us paddy. Radish can be grown as a blended crop with potato and other crops. The root is not wide¬ so it can be grown with a tuber such as potato without disturbing it. The soil for growing radish should have a very light texture. Sandy alluvial soil is good¬ but it should contain a lot of calcium. Radish require 1¶ tillings. In Guazipur and Juanpur radish grows quite large. Radish seedlings should be planted in such a way that the roots go straight down. Two techniques can be used to grow radish seeds. If soil is available¬ cut off the top one to one and a half inches of the radish and plant the top in wet soil. Use the remainder of the radish as a vegetable. After some time plenty of flowers and seeds will grow. If soil is not available¬ cut off the top of the radish as above¬ but hang the top upside down in a sheltered place. Gouge a cup-shaped cavity in the pulp and pour water into it. When the water dries up¬ wash the pulp and refill it with water. After some time¬ flowers and seeds will grow profusely downwards. Radish seeds should not be sown within a radius of three miles from where they were produced. Seeds should always be brought from outside the locality¬ otherwise the radish crop will be prone to disease. Cardamon (Ellaichi) There are many varieties of cardamom¬ such as aromatic cardamon (choto ellaichi or moranga elach)¬ large cardamon (boro elach)¬ true cardamon (elachi)¬ etc. This sweet spice is often used in preparing confectionery. Cinnamon (Darucini) Cinnamon is a sweet spice with medicinal value which is often ground and used as a powder and can also be used to make essential oil. Cumin (Mongrela, Kala Jiira) Cumin is a common savoury spice which is usually ground into a powder and used directly in cooking. Cumin can be grown with potato as a blended crop in the irrigation furrow of a field. Basil (Tulsi) Basil is a popular savoury herb which is often used in cooking. It also has medicinal value and is considered a sacred plant by some communities in India. Basil is a moon affected herb¬ and its effect increases on the full moon (purnima). Moon affected plants should be planted in a location which provides maximum exposure to moonlight. Moon affected herbs do not generally like sunlight¬ so if it is possible they should be planted so that they get maximum moonlight but no sunlight. Nutmeg (Ja'yphal¬ Myristika Fragrans) Nutmeg is a spicy fruit which is often dried and used in cooking sweets and breads. Its flowers are very beautiful. Anise (Saonp, Mauri) Anise is known as "madhuri" in Sam'skrta and "mahuri" or "mauri" in Bengali. It is a sweet spice which has medicinal value. Anise has two varieties: 1. greenish (Varanasi)¬ and 2. yellowish (indigenous). It is also commonly grown as a companion plant with potato in the irrigation furrow. Cloves (Lavanga) Cloves are well-known as a savoury spice which aid digestion. Clove oil is commonly used for this purpose. Cloves should be planted as near as possible to a river¬ but care should be taken that they are not inundated with water.  MEDICINAL PLANTS Numerous plants have known medicinal value¬ but other plants have lesser known or unknown properties. More research should be done on all kinds of plants to discover whether or not they have medicinal value¬ and if they do¬ they should be utilised for the welfare of human beings. Some common medicinal plants include: 1) bhrngara'j 2) sushsni sha'k 3) Asiatic pennywort (brahmi sha'k¬ thankuni¬ centella asiatica¬ L.) 4) bahed'a (Terminalia chebula) 5) Chinese chaste tree (nishinda¬ Vitex negundo¬ L.) 6) a'mr'a 7) ka'lmegh 8) ga'nda'l 9) mint (pudina'¬ rocanii) 10) scholar's leaves (cha'tim) 11) cinkona (Cinchona calisaya) 12) giima sha'k 13) ashwagandha 14) bottle gourd (la'u) 15) aloe (ghrta kuma'rii) 16) neem 17) eucalyptus 18) lemon 19) na'gdona 20) asparagus (shatamulii) Bringaraj Bringaraj yields an oil (tel) which is useful as hair oil and as a treatment for the mentally ill. Sushuni Sha'k Sushuni sha'k has a sweet taste because it contains a great deal of potassium¬ but it also induces sleep. Sushunia Hill is near Bankura in Chatana Thana¬ and it looks as if it is sleeping. The oldest Bengali script is found on this hill. The inscription shows Raja Chandrakanta Verma donating a piece of land to a Brahmin. Asiatic Pennywort (Brahmi Sha'k¬ Thankuni¬ Centella asiatica¬ L.) Asiatic pennywort is good for the brain and helps to increase memory power. Medicine is made from the leaves. In Ayurveda it is considered to be a nerve tonic¬ and is used for the treatment of all kinds of nervous and mental disabilities. Bahed'a (Terminalia Chebula) Baheda is sometimes known as "belleric myrobalan" in English. Baheda is a medicinal fruit tree and is good for constipation. Chinese Chaste Tree (Nishinda¬ Vitex Negundo, L.) Chinese chaste tree is known as "bona'ii" in Ra'r'hi Bangla. It has great medicinal value and a bitter taste¬ so animals do not eat it. A'mr'a Amr'a is a large fruit tree which can be used to make medicine for the skin¬ kidneys and lungs, and to prevent vomiting. K'almegh K'almegh is a grass. It can be used to make medicine for diabetes¬ liver problems and stomach disorders. G'anda'l G'anda'l is a climber. Medicine can be made from the leaves. Basak Basak is a bush and it can be used to make medicine for coughs and colds. Mint (Pudina'¬ Rocanii) Mint has some medicinal qualities¬ although it is better known as a sweet herb. In herbal medicine it is used as a digestive aid and is good for the stomach and intestines. Scholar's Leaves (Cha'tim) Scholar's leaves is also known as "the devil's tree" (Alstonia scholaris). It can be used to treat fever. Cinkona (Cinchona Calisaya) Cinkona is a source of quinine and other anti-malarial medicines. Giima Sha'k Giima can be used to make medicine for the stomach and liver and to treat dropsy. The small flowers are good for the brain when they are taken with the first morsel of rice. Giima is also good for treating male diseases. Ashwagandha A good medicine for tuberculosis can be prepared by powdering ashwagandha¬ bedila¬ gambhari (Gmelina arborea) and punar naba sha'k together. The powder should then be mixed with two spoons of goat's milk and taken. Bottle Gourd (La'u) Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria¬ Standl.) can be used to make a medicinal oil for treating the mentally ill. Aloe (Ghrta Kuma'rii) Aloe (Aloe vera¬ Liliaceae) is known as "ghrta kuma'rii" in Bengali and "musbal" in Arabic and Urdu. Musabbar is prepared by spreading aloe juice on a goat hide and drying it. Aloe is a medicine for the brain and is also used for treating ulsers¬ while the sap is widely used for treating burns¬ rashes and skin problems. Burns can sometimes be cured immediately by applying aloe¬ hence it is also called the "burn plant". Neem Neem has many medicinal properties¬ and is particularly useful as a blood cleanser and purifier. It is good for all skin¬ teeth and gum problems¬ therefore it is a common ingredient in soap and toothpaste. The neem tree has a fibrous root system. It makes a good riverside plant because it will check erosion. The air around the neem tree is good and can be used to balance the bad air around the imli tree. Eucalyptus Eucalyptus oil can be used to produce a medicinal vapor which is very helpful in the treatment of respiratory congestion. The eucalyptus tree is a tap root tree¬ and therefore it should not be cultivated extensively in dry regions. It can¬ however¬ be used to dry up swampy areas. Oil¬ paper¬ sporting goods and other products are made from it. Lemon Lemon juice is very helpful in treating acidity and purifying the body. Medicine can be prepared from lemon juice and skin. Na'gdona Nagdona is a small plant which can be used for treating headaches. Asparagus (Shatamulii)  Herbal medicine can be made from asparagus¬ as well as jam¬ jelly and marmalade (murraba)¬ and it is good for the health.  FLOWERS Flowers are grown for their beauty¬ fragrance¬ essential oil¬ medicinal value and floral nectar¬ and some flower seeds can be eaten¬ used in cooking or processed to produce oil. For example¬ flowering plants like night jasmine (shephali or Nyctanthes arbortristis) and ghandharaj can be grown for their fragrant flowers¬ while sunflower has edible seeds and can be grown as an oil crop or roadside plant. Flowering trees such as bakphul (Sesbania grandifloria) can also be grown along roadsides or in beauty spots. Some plants which have attractive or useful flowers include: 1) rose (gula'b) 2) magnolia (campa') 3) queen crepe myrtle (ja'rul) 4) safflower (kusum¬ Carthamus tinctorius) 5) poppy 6) kaincan 7) shveta karabii Rose (Gula'b) Rose is one of the most popular flowers in the world. It is grown throughout India¬ including A'nanda Nagar¬ although it is difficult to grow in a hot climate. Rose oil and essence are quite common. Roses need five requirements to grow properly ­­ a dry environment¬ sunshine¬ cold¬ laterite soil and calcium. Magnolia (Campa') Magnolia is common in India and the liquid extract often used for making scent (ittar)¬ perfume¬ incense and other scented products. Queen Crepe Myrtle (Ja'rul) Queen crepe myrtle is grown as a roadside plant at A'nanda Nagar. A violet extract used in dyeing can be made from the flower. Safflower (Kusum¬ Carthamus tinctorius) Safflower has a yellow-pink flower and thorns. It is a winter crop. Non-poisonous food colouring can be made from the petals¬ and sweet-scented edible oil can be made from the seeds. The colour extracts from aparajita (Clitoria tarnatea)¬ night jasmine (Nyctanthes arbortristis) and safflower are non-poisonous. Research should be done on safflower to produce colour extract commercially¬ increase the flower production and the percentage of oil in the seeds¬ and improve the quality and range of colours in the flowers. Poppy Poppy has many varieties and is grown for its flowers and seeds. Varieties of poppy may be cultivated in one or two rows around a wheat field. Poppy should not be cultivated with early boro paddy because if the water level in the paddy field suddenly rises¬ the poppy crop might be destroyed. One variety of poppy is the source of opium. Opium poppy needs extremes of temperature to grow properly. In India opium poppy cultivation requires the prior approval of the government. Research on opium poppy and any other narcotic plant such as Cannabis indica (ganga)¬ or their cultivation¬ should not be done on our integrated farming projects. Research on opium poppy should be conducted by the government. Kaincan  Kaincan is a small flowering tree which is often used as a boundary plant. Shveta Karabii Shveta Karabii is a decorative flower plant which grows to a height of about ¶ feet. It is used as a boundary plant.  TREES Some common trees include: 1) banyan (bat') 2) a'mla' (Emblica officinalis) 3) Acasia babul (gond) 4) shiriish 5) kusum (Oleosa schleichera) 6) arjun ((Terminalia arjuna) 7) Indian laburum (sonda'l¬ Cassia fiftula) 8) Pala'sh 9) Acasia catechu (khayer) 10) screw pine (ketakii¬ keora'¬ Pandanus) 11) Ta'l Ka't'a'l (Thai ragam¬ dalacca) 12) Tamarind (tentut) 13) Indian rosewood (sha'l¬ Daldergia latifolia) 14) piya' sha'l (Pterocarpus marsupium) 15) garjan (Dipterocarpus alatus) 16) betelnut (supa'ri) Banyan (Bat') The banyan tree is sometimes known as "the pillar tree" in English because aerial roots which look like pillars grow from the branches down into the ground. When the aerial roots are fully grown¬ one banyan tree can look like a dense forest. No other plants can grow amongst the aerial roots of old banyan trees which often extend over a large area. The soft tip of the aerial root (juri) is a good medicine for blood dysentery¬ mucus dysentery and leukemia when it is ground with water that has been used to wash rice. Banyan may be planted at the end of a slope¬ beside rivers or in extremely rocky areas. Banyan should be planted 20 feet from each other along the line where a slope ends and the sandy bank of a river begins. When banyan is planted in this way it helps check soil erosion¬ although Chinese banyan does not check soil erosion as well as Indian banyan. Between every two banyan trees¬ one Indian palmyra (ta'l) tree should be planted. The Indian banyan lives for 2000 to 6000 years¬ while the Indian palmyra lives for 120 years. The Indian palmyra also checks erosion. Banyan and Indian palmyra should be planted together on all integrated farming projects to prevent riverside erosion. The method for planting banyan is as follows. Make a small pit and plant the banyan seedling in it. Water the plant regularly for one month¬ but when new leaves appear the watering can be discontinued. However¬ bonsai banyan and Chinese banyan require continued watering after the first month. If the seedling dies¬ replace it with a larger one. A'mla' (Emblica Officinalis) A'mla' bears a fruit which is similar to a plum. Oil can be pressed from the seed. Scented a'mla' oil can be made by adding floral fragrances. Acasia Babul (Gond) Acasia babul is common in India. The sap can be mixed with other ingredients to produce glue. Lozenges can also be made from the juice after it has been refined. Shiriish Shiriish is a boundary plant which produces good quality wood. Kusum (Oleosa Schleichera) Kusum is sometimes referred to as "the lac tree" in English because it is a host to lac insects. It should not be confused with safflower¬ the kusum flower. Arjuna (Terminalia Arjuna) Arjuna can be used as a roadside tree. Tasar silk worms can be grown on it¬ and the wood is often used for furniture. Indian Laburnum (Sonda'l¬ Cassia Fiftula) The fruit of Indian laburum is called "banda lathi" in Bengali because it looks like a large lathi or stick. It can be used as a boundary plant. Pala'sh Pala'sh is an important lac host. Acasia Catechu (Khayer) Acasia catechu is also known as "the cutch tree" in English. The gum should not be used for making lozenges¬ but is an ingredient for making glue. Kattha¬ one of the ingredients for making pa'n (betel leaf for chewing)¬ can be made from it. Screw Pine (Ketakii¬ Keora', Pandanus) Screw pine is known as "ketaki" in Sam'skrta and "keora'" in Hindi and Bengali. There are many varieties¬ such as ram ban kewada and naga ketaki. Both these varieties help to prevent soil erosion. The screw pine lives for 2000 years and grows well in rocky areas and along the banks of rivers. It likes moist air. Scent is made from the flowers and the wood is also useful. Ta'l Ka't'a'l (Thai Ragam¬ Dalacca) Ta'l Ka't'a'l is a palm which is useful as an intermittent boundary plant. The wood may be used to construct furniture. Tamarind (Tentut) The roots of tamarind are very fibrous. It is an important riverside tree because the fibrous roots help check erosion. However¬ the trees gives off bad air¬ so it should be planted with simul and neem¬ which give off good air¬ to balance this effect. The sour fruit is beneficial for the health and is widely used in cooking and confectionery. Tamarind is very popular in South India. Indian Rosewood (Sha'l¬ Dalbergia Latifolia) Indian rosewood can be used to produce wood¬ latex¬ floral nectar¬ tasar silk¬ oil¬ etc. The fruit and leaves are also useful. It is a common roadside tree. Piya' Sha'l (Pterocarpus Marsupium) Piya' sha'l is used to produce wood. Bees also like the flowers. Garjan (Dipterocarpus Alatus) Garjan is sometimes called "the mangrove tree". It is a useful roadside plant¬ and is used to produce wood and oil. Betelnut (Supa'ri) Betel nut is a popular chewing nut in South Asia and particularly India. The nut is mixed with betel leaf¬ lime¬ etc. and chewed until the saliva turns red. It is a static stimulant and should not be eaten by those following a sentient diet. It is a plant of the palm group and requires a lot of rain or water¬ but it cannot tolerate waterlogging. It grows well on the slopes of Assam. Betel leaf is a creeper which does not require tilling. Betel leaf should not be confused with betel nut. Some varieties of betel leaf include: 1. ba'm'la' pa'n 2. cha'chi pa'n 3. miit'ha' pa'n 4. Magahii pa'n 5. Ghunghat' pa'n  ROADSIDE PLANTS Some examples of roadside planting combinations grown at A'nanda Nagar include: 1) alternately mango seedlings and eucalyptus (M+E+M+E...) 2) palmyras of different varieties and selected mango seedlings of different varieties planted alternately (M+P+M+P...) 3) mango seedlings and date palm. The date palm should be of the Gujarati and Videhi varieties. (D+B+D+B...) 4) date palms of different varieties and blackberries of different varieties. (D+B+D+B...) 5) palmyra and different varieties of shade trees¬ both Indian and non-Indian. (P+S1+P+S2...) 6) ebony (ablus)¬ queen crepe myrtle (ja'rul)¬ mahagony¬ teak (segun). (E+Q+M+S...) 7) selected mango seedlings and silk cotton of different varieties. (M+S+M+S...) 8) mango and silk cotton with date palm of different varieties and a few banyan trees. Between the banyan trees a few palmyra should be planted instead of date palm. For example¬ (M+D1+S+M+B+P+B+S+M+D2+S...) 9) late maple trees in between date palm. (M+D+M+D...) 10) chinar with intermittent date palm. (C+D+C+D...) 11) magnolias mixed with all type of palms. One palm between every two magnolias¬ including do'ma' ta'l¬ African palm¬ and African oil palm. 12) different shade trees of Indian and non-Indian varieties. Existing roadside plants should not be destroyed. As a fixed rule agave ahould be the fill-up plant in the case of all the road trees. Ta'l can also be planted along roadsides. Above the gates of compounds an arch of creepers such as nayan painjana (bouganvillea)¬ madavilata and madhurilata should be planted. Seasonal plants that can be grown in sunny spots¬ on roof tops and beside roads include calendula¬ poppy¬ double zinnia¬ pansy¬ carnation and cosmos. These plants can be obtained from Holland and Belgium. Orchids should not be planted on roadside trees but anywhere else in beauty spots. February 1988, Calcutta