RIVER AND CIVILIZATION

official source: A Few Problems Solved Part 5

cross-references: also published in Prout in a Nutshell Part 9

this version: the first section is the printed A Few Problems Solved Part 5, 1st 
	edition, version (spelling mistakes only may have been corrected). The 
	second section is the printed Shadba Cayanika' Part 3, 1st edition, 
	version I.e., this is the most up-to-date version as of the present 
	Electronic Edition.

	Human life is the most developed and final stage of animal life. The speciality of human life is that it has dharma. In animal life there is no dharma.

	Civilization is a collection of usages, manners, etiquette, formalities, ideologies and love. The culture of the entire humanity is the same, but civilization varies from society to society.

	Human civilization is created in, and moves along, river valleys. Like a river, human civilization also has three stages--hill stage, plain stage and delta stage. From the hill stage, it moves to the plain stage and from the plain stage to the delta stage. A civilization starts in the hill stage, develops in the plain stage, and matures in the delta stage.

	Why are civilizations created in, and why do they move along, river-valleys? In ancient times, up until the Stone Age, humans could not dig wells and depended upon natural sources of water. As such, human habitation started from springs, fountains, waterfalls, rivers, etc. Animals also select such places for habitation; only birds do not follow this rule. Thus, human habitation started near valleys, fountains, waterfalls, springs, and particularly near rivers. Due to the assemblage of humans in the river-valleys, the first stage of civilization started there. 

	The relation between man and man, man and woman, individual and collective requirements, individual and collective responsibilities--how to move singularly and collectively--the collection of all these is civilization. It has already been said that civilization starts in the hill stage, develops in the plain stage, and attains maturity in the delta stage. Naturally, the delta stage is the finality of a civilization.

	The hill stage of the Ganga' (Ganges) river-valley civilization in India started from the Garwal and Kumaun ranges of Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) . The rest of U.P. and Bihar is in the plain stage, and the delta stage starts from Maldah in West Bengal. The hill stage of the Brahmaputra valley civilization starts from Tibet and Arunachal. Its plain stage lies in Assam and its delta stage starts from the districts of Goalpara, Maymensing, and Rangpur (now in Bangladesh).

	The delta is that stage where the river starts to merge in the sea by the shortest route. In the delta stage, tributaries have no prominent role. In the hill stage, tributaries play the dominant role, and there are hardly any branch rivers. In the plain stage also, tributaries have the dominant role in the growth and manifestation of civilizations, but branches also have some importance. However, in the deltaic stage, branch-rivers have a more important role than the tributaries.

	Simple civilizations (maolik sabhyata') and blended civilizations (vimishra sabhya'ta') are the two basic characteristics of civilization. A particular civilization changes in a particular way as a river moves and merges with other rivers, thus giving rise to sub-civilizations.

	The Mandakinii and Alaka'nanda river civilizations emerged. We find the blending of these two civilizations at the hill stage. After passing through so many mountains, hills, fountains, etc., these two rivers, Manda'kinii and Alanka'nanda, come in contact with each other at the hill stage. They merge near Hardwar, and there the two simple river civilizations. Garwali and Kumauni respectively, combine to produce a blended Ganga' civilization, which comes up to Praya'ga.

	Now, another river valley civilization, the Jamuna civilization along the river Yamuna, is also a collection of several sub-civilizations comprising many customs, costumes, manners, etc. It also comes up to Praya'ga. The blended Ganga' civilization and the blended Yamuna civilization merge at Praya'ga and a blended Ganga'-Yamuna civilization occurs after the river confluence at Praya'ga and moves towards Varanasi. Praya'ga is the second blending of manners, customs, etc., of the Ganga' and Yamuna civilizations.

	After Praya'ga we find another blending of civilizations. Therefore, there are variations in the manners, customs, languages, intonations, physical structures and economic conditions of eastern U.P. and western U.P. A further blending occurs in the blended civilizations of the Ganga' and Yamuna when the Gomati, Papti, Sone and Saraju rivers bring new trends from the northern portion of the Himalaya and Chambal-Ghagher river from the Vindhya ranges. Thus civilizations vary and sub-civilizations, branch civilizations, emerge at different stages of the movement of a river and its blending with other river-civilizations.

	The Bundela sub-civilization emerges due to the blending of the Yamuna and Chambal civilizations. The Bagheli sub-civilization emerges due to the blending of the Yamuna and Sone. 

	After Kashi there is another blending of civilizations where several other rivers merge. Thus in this plain stage, tributaries and branch rivers play an important role in the emergence of new civilizations. 

	After Madrah in West Bengal, the Ganga' enters the delta stage--a stage where branches have the dominant role. The blended civilization of the Ganga' attains maturity in Bengal. "Daha" means the circular movement of water in a river; so it is called Maldaha. At Maldah, the Ganga turns to the right. The blended Ganga' civilization is in its highest form in the deltaic stage in Bengal.

	Now it is clear that the hill stage of the India civilizations occurs in the hill area of U.P. and the rest of U.P., and Bihar are in the plain stage, where Baghali, Bundeli, Avadhi, Bhojpuri, Magahi, Maetheli, and Aungika' sub-civilizations emerged.

	The Brahmaputra civilization is a combination of the proto-Chinese and Indo-Tibetan civilizations. The civilization of Assam is a blending of the Tibetan-Chinese and Ganga' civilizations, due to the proximity of Assam with the Ganga' civilization. After this, the Brahmaputra turns to the left and enters Bengal, which is in its delta stage. The delta stage of the Brahmaputra civilization is its final stage. Bengal is the finality of the Brahmaputra civilization. 

	In Bengal there is another civilization as well, the civilization of ra'r'ha. The hill stage, plain stage and delta stage of the Ra'r'ha civilization is in Bengal. So many rivers of Ra'r'ha merge in the area of lower Bengal, which results in further blending. Thus in Bengal, there is a blending of three delta civilizations -- the Ganga', Brahmaputra and Ra'r'ha civilizations. This is the highest blended civilization  of the world. Nature helps the people of Bengal in their intellectual progress, because no two great rivers like the Ganga' and the Brahmaputra merge together anywhere else in the world. 

	In original civilizations (maolik sabhyta'), people are physically strong. In blended civilizations, people are strong in the psychic stratum and the civilization is complicated as well as forceful. In the simple Ganga' civilization people are simple and physically strong; in the delta stage people are complicated, less physically strong and strong psychically.

	The people of Bengal are intellectually developed because first, Bengal civilization is a blending of three deltaic civilizations and secondly, it is not a simple civilization but a great, complicated civilization -- the blend and finality of three deltaic civilizations. Naturally, therefore, it is a powerful civilization, advanced in the intellectual and other spheres. 

2 September 1982, Allahabad 

* * *

	While discussing destiny, or decree of fate, I still vividly remember an old story which is still vibrating my mind. I went to Allahabad to deliver a lecture on Indian philosophy in response to an invitation from the university. Usually I don't accept such invitations, but this particular case was a little different and more significant for me. First I knew many of the university administration and teaching staff, and secondly the university of Allahabad was highly reputed and influential. My lecture was complete by evening and I left Allahabad city without delay for Muzaffarpur, where I had some important work. Suddenly, at the waiting room at Rambag railway station I happened to meet Sutanuka' and her son Himava'n. She was delighted to see me and exclaimed joyfully, "Elder brother, what a surprise! I would never have dreamed that I would meet you here." 

	Sutanuka' Mitra is my cousin. I had last seen her fifteen years before at Chandannagar at the marriage of her younger sister. Her husband Aru'pratan Mitra was a veteran military officer who earned a name for himself during British rule. I met him for the first time during that marriage at Chandannagar ( Bor'o Ka'liitala'.)  

	"Since we are meeting after such a long time," I said to my cousin, "why don't you come with me to Muzaffarpur? From there you'll be able to go directly to Burdwan." 

	"Well, I was thinking to visit your place during the winter holidays," she replied. "Himava'n has to go to college, and Aru'pratan will be landing at Dumdum airport the day after tomorrow after his trip to London. He'll be going straight to Burdwan from the airport. Our house is locked up, so if we get home late, he'll be greatly inconvenienced." 

	I realized her difficulty. We decided to travel together in the same compartment to Varanasi by narrow gauge railway and exchange stories. On reaching Varanasi I would take the narrow gauge on to Muzaffarpur and Sutanuka' would take a train to Burdwan, arriving there either late at night or before dawn. It was expected that Aru'pratan take a local train from Calcutta to Burdwan and reach home at about 10 A.M. the same day. That was finally decided. It had been a long time since Sutanuka' and I had seen each other. 

	Though Sutanuka' and her family were living at Burdwan they originally belonged to the Mitra family of Konnagar. Towards the end of Pathan rule, an intellectual society grew up in Hooghly District on the west bank of the river Bha'giirathii. Konnagar was one of the intellectual centres. In those days the Ra'y Mitras of Konnagar were the landlords. Konnagar was considered as one of the most cultured and well-educated villages of Hooghly District of Rarh. Moreover it was one of the most famous places in the whole of Bengal. Its original name was Karn'anagar. The people said that in Bengal if there was only one nagar or town it would be Karn'anagar. That is why the town's name could often be heard during a conversation between intellectuals. If anyone was asked, "Which is the best town to go to?" he or she would reply, "There is only one town. Why should you ask 'Which town [Kon nagar in Bengali]? ' -- There is only one town: Konnagar." And that is how the place became known as Konnagar. 

	I said to Sutanuka', "The name of the city we're about to leave is known as Allahabad city, but formerly it was called Praya'ga. It's a fact that Praya'ga is older than Konnagar. It was built towards the end of the Yajurvedic period six thousand years ago. But Burdwan is even more ancient than Praya'ga. During Pathan rule Praya'ga was renamed Allahabad (Abode of Allah). Since then its popularity has been increasing. The Shia Moslems named the city Illahabad, but during the Mughal period, the prosperous growth of the city was checked. Thereafter, the city again began to flourish towards the end of the British rule when it became the capital of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (U.P. for short). 

	In the pre-Buddhist era Burdwan was the capital of Rarh. In the Buddhist and Jain era it remained Rarh's capital. During the Mughal period (during the reign of Akbar) Burdwan was the capital of Suba-Ba'ngal. But Konnagar had no such royal glamour. It was just a cultured village of Burdwan District (the district of Hooghly was not created then). Iishan Chandra Ghosh, the renowned Bengali scholar of medieval Bengal; Rama Chandra Ghosh, the illustrious logician and author of scriptures; Pra'n'atosa' Biswas, the most erudite Sanskrit and scriptural scholar; and Dr. Krs'n'adhan Ghosh (Aurobinda's father),the first Bengali District Medical Officer (DMO) and Civil Surgeon, were all born in Konnagar. Then I turned towards Himava'n and said, "Your father was born at Konnagar but you belong to Burdwan." 

	He pointed out, "You told us a little while ago that Konnagar was within Burdwan District." I said, "That's a hundred per cent true." We were travelling from west to east -- from ancient Brahma'vartta or Brahmars'idesh to the ancient Ka'shii kingdom. That part of the Gangetic valley is considered as the middle part of the Ganges river civilization. The Praya'ga area is considered as the upper part of the Ganges river civilization. The area stretching from Praya'ga to the confluence of the rivers Shone and Ganges is the middle part of the Ganges river civilization. And the area from the Shone-Ganges confluence to Sahebganj is considered as the Gaod'a' part of the Ganges river civilization. The area from Sahebganj, where the Ganges starts flowing southward, to Gangasagar is known as the final part of the Ganges valley civilization or Gaod'iiya civilization. The Gaod'iiya civilization is most developed where the rivers of Rarh -- carrying with them the local cultural specialities of Rarh civilization -- and the Brahmaputra river, coming from the northeast -- carrying with it the flow of Mongolian civilization merge into the Ganges. The part of the Ganges valley civilization which was the home land of the pre-Gaod'iiya and Gaod'iiya civilization cannot be called the Aryan civilization in the proper sense of the term. Actually, it is the east India civilization or extended Ganges delta civilization. 

	So the area from Allahabad to Ka'shii or Gan'd'akii (here Gan'd'akii means Na'ra'yan'ii-Gan'd'ak -- not the Bur'i Gan'd'ak of Muzaffarpur and Samastipur) is part of the pre-Gaod'iiya civilization. Burdwan can be considered as the nucleus of Ra'r'iiya civilization, and Konnagar as the main source of the Gaod'iiya civilization which is itself based on the Ra'r'iiya civilization. So you see, Himava'n, your Burdwan and your father's Konnagar are both bathed in the light of the same golden moon. 

	Himava'n was a B.Sc. student, but I was amazed by his ardent interest in river-valley civilizations. Even though he was a young boy he had an unusually keen interest in the origins of civilization. He asked me, "Uncle, different species of plants, trees and animals and a particular human civilization have followed the Ganges downstream from its source in Gangottarii. Similarly, other species of plants, trees and animals as well as a different human civilization have followed the banks of the river Yamuna downstream from its source at Yamunottarii. What is the result of the merging of the two rivers, the Ganges and Yamuna, at Praya'ga?" 

	I answered, "That's a good question. Just as the river Ganges has brought with her saffron-coloured clay, special types of flora and fauna and its own alluvium, the river Yamuna has also carried her own distinct characteristics down from her source. A little further downstream, another river, the Charma'nvatii or Chambal, carrying the special characteristics of the western Indian civilization of Ma'lava and Bundelkhan'd'a merges into the Yamuna. In this area a new mixed civilization occurred which can be called the Baghelii civilization. The Yamuna carried this mixed civilization, and merged its black waters into the Ganges at Praya'ga. So, the middle stage of the Gangetic valley civilization starts from Praya'ga. 

	The Gangetic river valley civilizations upriver and downriver from Praya'ga are not the same. The middle stage lying to the south of the Ganges continues up to the Ganga-Shon' confluence at Patna, and that lying to the north continues up to the Ganges-Na'ra'yan'ii confluence near Hajipur. After that the pre-Gaod'iiya civilization starts there. Comparatively speaking the Austric influence is comparatively less than the Mongol-Tantric influence. This area has been known as Trihotriiya Bhu'mi since ancient times. On the south of the Ganges, after the Ganga-Shon' confluence, the Pre-Gaod'iiya civilization starts no doubt, but there the Mongol-Tantric influence is less than the Gondawana influence. 

	From the ethnological point of view, there is a difference between Trihotriiya Bhu'mi and Magadha Bhu'mi. In the physical structure of the people of Trihotriiya Bhu'mi the Austric influence is less than the Mongolian influence. Black people are few in number. From the complexion of the people in Magadha it is evident that the Mongolian influence is almost nil. Flat-nosed people are very few. There are many black-complexioned people but with aquiline noses. 

	Although Trihotriiya Bhu'mi (Videha or, Mithila') and Magadha belong to the same language group, the Ma'gadhii Pra'krta group, the Maethilii language belongs to the Eastern Demi-Ma'gadhii group, and the Magahii language belongs to the Western Demi-Ma'gadhii group. The difference in intonation of the languages is particularly discernible, yet both languages belong to the pre-Gaod'iiya Gangetic Civilization, is noticed in Anga Bhu'mi, where the Trihotriiya and Ma'gadhii cultural characteristics have blended into one. These characteristics came in contact with the Gaod'iiya civilization. 

	This Gangetic valley civilization has been transformed into pure Gaod'iiya civilization or deltaic civilization where the River Ganges and the Vindhya Range have come closest to each other near Sahebganj in Angadesh, and from that point the Ganges flows southwards."

	Himava'n said, " I want to do research on the subject when I'm grown up. But from my conversation with you I can clearly understand that this sort of research cannot be done sitting at our Borehat residence in Burdwan or at the Shyampur residence in Calcutta; rather we have to move a great deal in the fields and along the banks of the rivers."

	I said, "You are right. This type of work cannot be done theoretically or half-heartedly. One hundred per cent sincerity is required for this sort of task, and then one will achieve one hundred per cent success."

	Sutanuka' said, "Well, brother, I think we have now almost reached Ka'shii. After a while we'll reach Benares city by narrow gauge. I'd like to know how deep the Vedic influence was in this area which you describe as the second part of the Gangetic Valley civilization.

	I replied, "Look, as far as I understand, the land of Rarh is the land where Sanskrit originated. But the ancient language which we describe as the Vedic language came to India from the northwest along with the Aryans. The Aryans first migrated to the Sindhu-Saoviira, and the land of Sapta-Sindhu, the Seven Rivers (Sutlej or Shatadru, Bias or Vipa'sha, Ravi or Ira'vatii, Chenub or Candrabha'ga', Jhelum or Vitasta', Kabul and Sind). These seven rivers together are known as the Sapta-Sindhu. Later on the land became known as the Punjab, that is, the land of five rivers. The names of two rivers have been dropped, so there remain only five.

	"This is the first phase of the Vedic influence in India. In the second phase the Aryans moved further southeast: their influence pervaded in the northern part of the Yamuna valley. That area was known as Haritadha'nya or the "Land of Green Vegetation" (Haritadha'nya > Hariaha'nna > Hariha'na > Hariya'na).

	"Then, in the next phase, the Aryans reached Praya'ga around the Ganga-Yamuna valley. This we can describe as the third phase of the Vedic influence. Then they moved farther east, and their influence extended to the Gan'da'kii river on the north and the Shon River on the south. This can be called the fourth phase of the Vedic influence. In this area was situated the ancient Ka'shiira'jya or Kingdom of Ka'shii. We are now journeying through the Ka'shiira'jya. One thing to be noted here is that in the first phase, the Vedic language left two daughters behind: Pa'shca'ttya and Paesha'cii Pra'krta. In the languages born out of this Pa'shca'ttya and Paesha'cii Pra'krta (for example, Pashto, Punjabi, etc.) there is a multitude of derived words from the Vedic language. In the second phase, that is, in the Hariya'navii language, the percentage of Vedic-derived words is somewhat less. In the third stage, the percentage of the Vedic-derived words is still less, for instance in languages like Ma'r'oya'rii, Har'aotii, Bundelii, Ba'ghelii, Avadhii, and Vrajabha's'a, etc. And in the languages of the fourth stage, like Bhojpurii, the percentage of Vedic-derived words is still less. But no one should misunderstand that in the fourth stage the Vedic influence was nil. No doubt the direct Vedic influence in the fourth stage was nil, but the indirect influence in pre-Gaod'iiya and Gaod'iiya civilizations was tremendous, and that influence still persists even today."

	Sutanuka' said, "I've noted with interest that in the fourth stage the external appearance of the people and the size of the cattle are quite different from those of the pre-Gaod'iiya and Gaod'iiya civilizations."

	Then I said, "You're right in your observation. The structure of the human skull of people in this area is different from that of the people of the area of pre-Gaoiiya civilization. But the human skull of the people of Angadesh is almost the same as that of the people of the Gaod'iiya area; the difference is hardly discernible.

	Ka'shii is not very far from Allahabad. After a short while we reached Benares city station by narrow gauge. Himava'n said with a choked voice, "Uncle, now we must get off. I don't know when we shall meet again. It was a very lively and interesting discussion."

	Both Sutanuka' and Himava'n were repeatedly requesting me to visit them at Burdwan: they complained that I had forgotten Burdwan. I protested, saying "No, I haven't forgotten it -- I have so many pleasant memories of Burdwan, so many songs of sweet love filled with joys and sorrows associated with Burdwan."

	They proceeded to the city centre. My private secretary approached me and said, "My in-law is sitting in the next compartment -- he's going to Cha'pra." I said, "When your in-law is sitting nearby, why don't you go and have a chat with him for a while? I won't mind. Tomorrow morning there is an auspicious occasion of holy bathing in the Ganges, so most of the passengers are bound for Benares. There will be relatively few passengers from Benares to Muzaffarpur. Perhaps I will be the only passenger in this compartment."

	My private secretary went to the next compartment to talk with his in-law. I supposed he was enjoying a hearty meal of lit't'i [a type of fried unleavened bread] soaked in ghee. The train left with a whistle, and the wheels started moving. Suddenly, a handsome gentleman dressed in a military uniform came running up, and, gasping for breath, entered the compartment. Immediately he approached me with rapid steps. After a while, when I looked closely at him, I was amazed to see that he was none other than my brother-in-law, Aru'pratan Mitra, Sutanuka''s husband, whom I met about fifteen years ago at Bor'oka'liitala' at Chandannagar! I requested him to take his seat beside me, and said to him, "How are things going -- why are you running, gasping for breath? Why are you coming to meet me at 9:00 at night in this empty compartment? I'm on my way to Muzaffarpur; where are you going?"

	Aru'p said, "About fifteen minutes ago, at a quarter to nine, my mind suddenly became restless and agitated with so many thoughts and feelings. I thought to myself, "However possible, and as fast as possible, I must come to you immediately. It is my firm conviction that this restlessness, this agitation, will be put to rest as soon as I come near you. I now desperately need peace ... only peace. I don't want happiness, or prosperity -- I don't want the least amount of wealth or jewels of this vast world -- I want only peace."

	Aru'p sat down. He was still gasping for breath. I asked him, "When your mind became restless, where were you then?" He replied, "I was far away from here ... on the shore of a sea." I said, "If you were so far away from here, then how could you come here in fifteen minutes?"

	With a glimmer of a sweet smile on his lips he replied, "I came very fast, so I am gasping for breath. Immediately after reaching you, my mind has become peaceful. Now I feel a deep tranquility within."

	I said, "Unrest or peace are all in the mind. Well, let us talk for a while."

	Aru'p said, "Some time ago I heard from someone that you have already addressed a few symposia on river valley civilizations. I couldn't realize what it was, but I guessed that you might have said something about how at the different stages of rivers the patterns of civilizations vary."

	I asked him, "Were you then in Britain?" 

	He answered, "Yes, I was, and said, "Perhaps you know that Great Britain is a small country;  the distance from any part of Britain to the ocean is not more than fifty miles. So naturally in that country there cannot be any large river: the distance between the source of a river and the ocean cannot be very great. Yet if we move along the banks of certain rivers, there is a difference between the civilization of the upper areas of the river and the lower ones, and there is also a variation in language.

"Take for example the case of the river Thames: it is not a big river, either in width or in breadth. The part of the river Thames where the ships sail is not really a river, it is only an estuary of the sea, just like the Ma'tla' river near Canning. Many people think that the Ma'tla' is perhaps a wide and large river. They may think that in olden days the southern branch of the river Yamuna (Vidya'dharii) emerging from the Ganges at Trivenii, moved southwards, and then it and the southeastern tributary of the Ganges (Piya'lii) both flowed separately for a certain distance and then joined together to form the Ma'tla' river. Though this is a fact, yet the collective waters of these two combined rivers is quite small. In fact, the Ma'tla' river is nothing but the estuary of the sea entering into the land.

"The deltaic portion of the river Thames is somewhat similar. The more one proceeds down the river from the source of the Thames, the greater is the Anglo-Saxon and Norman influence. If one moves from the southern bank of the Thames towards the Straights of Dover, there is still a tremendous Norman influence, like a subterranean flow. If one moves from the northern side of the river towards the port of Grimsby on the delta at the coast, there is a greater Anglo-Saxon influence than Norman influence. If one moves towards the coast, the Norman influence becomes negligible. Where there is Norman influence, there are large numbers of Latin derivations in the spoken language. Where the Anglo-Saxon influence is predominant, the number of Latin derivative words is comparatively little. The difference in intonation in the respective areas, too, is quite discernible.

"If one moves towards the opposite part of the Thames river, or towards Wales in the west, the ancient Briton influence is not negligible, even in the spoken language. This is the reason why, though Welsh is a language of a small country, yet it has certain specialities of its own. Even the difference in people's external appearance, though not very prominent, is not negligible either."

I said, "You are right, Aru'p, in your observation. I notice that both you and Himava'n are equally interested in river valley civilizations. I was not aware of this before!"

Aru'p blushed and smiled faintly. He said, "Perhaps you once said that in our land of Rarh, on either bank of the Bakreshvar river in central Birbhum, there is a local civilization which, though small in area, has its own speciality even in the style of its temples and also in its terracotta works. There is also a difference in the use of verbal forms in the spoken language of that area. Similarly, in southern Birbhum also, there is a small river called the Kopa'i (Kupita or "angry") in whose valleys there is also some sort of local civilization. As far as I remember, someone said that the water of the Bakreshvar valley is one of the best for it is full of sulphur. But the water of Kopa'i valley, though it is as good as that of many places in Bengal, is not as good as that of the Bakreshvar valley. The two small rivers, with their own distinctive streams of water, flow from the west to the east, carrying the rhythmic songs of the most ancient human civilization, in cadence with the dancing rhythms of the land of Rarh. When the two rivers meet at Melanpur (meaning "meeting place") at one end of the area under the jurisdiction of the Nanur police station, they are known as Kuye, and at that point both their local civilizations become blended. Melanpur really joins the two rivers in all respects. If one listens intently to the local dialect, one will hear a particular drawled intonation which is lacking in west Birbhum. Besides this, other local variations also came into being there."

I said, "You are right, Aru'p. Really I am delighted by your description. The specialities of the river valley civilizations are very distinct in our Birbhum. In the upper reaches of Birbhum, the spoken language has no drawled intonation: it is one of the flawless branches of the Rarh language. But in the lower reaches of Birbhum, the same Rarh dialect has a local drawl -- have you noticed it?"

Aru'p said, "Yes, I have. This subtle difference in intonation between the area of the Khayra'sol police station and the La'bpur police station, and again, between the Khayra'sol police station and the Mayureshvar police station, can be easily discerned only by listening to it.

Aru'p said, "Though it is not directly concerned with culture, still it is a funny story ... "

I looked at Aru'p and asked him, "What do you mean?"

Aru'p said, "At Khayra'sol in the upper reaches of Birbhum, there is a widespread use of poppy seed, whereas in the lower reaches, the use of poppy seed is less by five to seven per cent. That is to say, in the upper reaches there is an empire of poppies, and in the lower reaches there is merely a kingdom of poppies!"

Aru'p burst into laughter. I too joined in his laughter. To continue, I said, "The other symbols of Rarh culture -- like d'ingla (a type of pumpkin), kher'o (another type of pumpkin), green gram, jhumur dance are equally popular in both the upper and lower reaches."

Aru'pratan smiled, and said with a voice growing in excitement, "Yes brother, I've noticed that too. You see, although I live in Burdwan in central Rarh, I was actually born in Konnagar in the low-lying area of Rarh. In our place also, pumpkin and green gram are very popular, and people can hardly live without poppyseed." 

"By the way, Aru'p", I said, "you rushed into this compartment at exactly nine o'clock. How long were you able to speak with Sutanuka' and Himava'n on the platform?" 

Aru'pratan exclaimed in wide-eyed amazement, "What! Did Sutanuka' and Himava'n come here?" 

"Don't you know that?" I asked. "They accompanied me in this very compartment from Allahabad City and got off the train in Benaras. They were in a hurry to get to Ka'shii where they were planning to catch an evening train which would get them to Burdwan by dawn on Wednesday morning. They told me that you were expected to land at Dumdum airport at around the same time, and that you would take a local train from Howrah to Burdwan, reaching there at about ten the same day. They have the keys of the house, so if you were to arrive there before them you would be put to great trouble. They knew they had to reach Burdwan by dawn on Wednesday by any means." 

"No, I didn't see them," said Aru'pratan. "I missed them at Benaras railway station. But what you said was correct: I was expected to arrive at Burdwan at ten on Wednesday morning." He paused for a while and then continued. "They shouldn't catch any train which will get them there late at night or at dawn -- I apprehend some danger. 

"If you sense some impending danger, under no circumstances should they catch any Burdwan train at that particular time. You should get off the train at the next station and find some way to go to Ka'shii." And I advised him, "You'd better go to Ka'shii and look for them in all the probable places. They have to be prevented from taking any of those Burdwan trains." He said, "That's a good idea. That's a good idea." 

The train slowed down. We were approaching a station, no doubt. Aru'pratan jumped to his feet, rushed to the door, and, looking like a bird ruffled by a raging tempest, leapt onto the platform without waiting for the train to stop. He had reason enough to be worried. 

As soon as the train stopped my private secretary hurriedly entered my compartment. I guessed he had just finished his dinner of lit't'i [a type of fried, unleavened bread] with his in-law. Perhaps his in-law had also served him kar'iibar'ii [a type of dumpling made of chick-pea flour and served in yoghurt water] and ma'kha'na ks'iir [a type of sweet rice] for dessert. My private secretary sat beside me and asked me if I had been inconvenienced in any way. I said I hadn't. Our train was moving from west to east across the border of the ancient Ka'shii state. I had told Himava'n that this was the last area to come under Aryan influence. In the fourth phase of the Aryan invasion of India, Ka'shii can be regarded as a border state of northern India (A'rya'vartta). The River Sarayu not only carried the Aryan influence along its banks but also Mongol and to some extent Austric influence as well. That is why its eastern bank was considered as non-Aryan land. Later on this boundary was further extended to the River Gan'd'akii (Na'ra'yan'ii Gan'd'ak). The Ka'nyakubja Brahmans of those days did not like to cross the River Sarayu. As the land on the other bank was non-Aryan it was considered unholy. They were afraid they would lose their Aryan purity. Those Ka'nyakubja Brahmans who dared to cross the river, being lured by the fertile land of the trans-Sarayu area, were declared outcastes. They lost their identity as Ka'nyakubja Brahmans and became known as Sa'rayupa'rii Brahmans. 

During Pathan rule, the last boundary of A'rya'vartta was the present Ghazipur District. In those days north India consisted of three Subas [administrative divisions]: Suba Ba'nga'l on the east, Suba Punjab on the northwest and Suba Hindostan between the two. Even today, the people of Bengal and the Punjab call the inhabitants of the middle part of northern India "Hindustani". Some people are of the opinion that Hindustan means the whole of India and thus why should the inhabitants of a small part of India be called Hindustani. But this is wrong, because the term "Hindustani" is used for the people who were once the inhabitants of Suba Hindostan, and not in the sense of Hindustan as being the whole of India. During the Mughal period when Akbar divided his empire into fifteen subas, the name of the northern part of Suba Hindostan was Oudh and the southern part, Suba Agra. Ghazipur District was the last boundary of Suba Agra. On the east of Ghazipur District lies Balia District. Previously it was only a subdivision of Ghazipur District. Similarly, there was no Deoria District in those days. It was only a subdivision of Gorakhpur District.

The British occupied both Agra and Oudh Subas and made one administrative area out of them -- the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (U.P. for short) with its capital at Allahabad. In the last part of British rule, the capital was moved to Lucknow. Anyway, there was a marked influence of Mongol and Austric cultures on the Aryan society inhabiting the Sarayu' river valley. Later on many Aryans crossed the Sarayu' river and declared the banks of the Gan'd'akii as the boundary line of A'rya'vartta. The area lying on the west of the Gan'd'akii valley was called Sha'kya'ran'ya and the area on the east was called Videha or Mithila'. This latter area was not considered as an Aryan colony. I personally consider it as part of the area covered by the pre-Gaod'iiya Gangetic valley civilization. 

King Mithi occupied Videha. To sanctify the land he held a Trihotriiya' Yajina [a big sacrifice presided over by three priests]. It was then declared sacred. The land sanctified by the performance of a Trihotriiya' Yajina was named Trihut. The land of Sha'kya'ran'ya, although not widely valued by the Aryans, was respected by the Buddhists. Lord Buddha visited it a couple of times. Later, it became known as Sha'ran'a (Sha'kya'ran'ya > Sha'kya'ran'a > Sha'ran'a). In later years it was wrongly spelt as Sha'ran. 

On the north of Sha'kya'ran'ya was the ancient and famous place, Champaka'ran'ya. A reference is made to it in the Ra'ma'yan'a [one of the two great Sanskrit epics] (Campaka'ran'ya > Campa'ran'ya > Camparan'). Sha'kya'ran'ya and Campaka'ran'ya are situated in the Na'ra'yan'ii-Gan'd'aka valley. On the eastern bank is Videha or Mithila' or Trihut, the land which was occupied by King Mithi. Mithi + la' [holder] + -d'a [suffix] + -a' [feminine suffix] = Mithila'. In the Buddhist period one of the famous villages of Sha'kya'ran'ya was Hatthiigra'm (Hastiigra'ma in Sanskrit). Buddha visited this place a couple of times. It is now known as Ha'thoya'. During British rule the Ha'thoya' estate was one of the biggest estates in India. Then came the river Gan'd'akii -- Na'ra'yan'ii Gan'd'aka. The biggest cattle fair in India, known as the Hariharks'etra fair, is held once a year on the banks of this river. Nearby is the Shon'pur railway station. 

Immediately after crossing the Gan'd'akii river bridge at Shon'pur we reached Mithila'. During the Mughal period and the early part of British rule, the Mithila' division of Bengal Presidency consisted of three districts: Trihut, Champaran and Sha'ran'. The district headquarters of Champaran was Motiha'ri, that of Sha'ran' was Cha'pra, and that of Trihut was Muzaffarpur. This latter district was named after Muzaffar Shah. It covered a wide area and until the early part of the British period its fertile soils were thickly forested. The forests contained abundance of numerous species of flora and fauna, notably tigers, antelopes, crocodiles, panthers and deer. The lake on the ancient river course of the river Lakhandei covered a larger area in those days and was surrounded by extensive forest full of abundant flora and fauna. A major part of the forest was part of the king of Darbhanga's estate. Some of it was within the Shu'ras'an'd'a kingdom, and some part belonged to the estate of the Bettiah king. People today, out of necessity, but also out of immense greed have destroyed most of the forest, particularly in Trihut District. 

At Vaeshali* in Trihut District Vardhama'na Maha'viira was born into a Vaeshya family. His father's name was Siddha'rtha and his mother was called Trishala'. The Trihut District as well as Mithila' were located partly in the Na'ra'yan'ii-Gan'd'aka valley and partly in the Bur'igan'daka and Lakhandei valleys. There was more Gaod'iiya influence here than in Ar'ya'var'tta. The Bengali script is used here. It is to be noted that both Buddha and Maha'viira were born in a place where there was less Aryan influence in comparison. 

* Vaeshali was the land of the Licchabis; it was the oldest republic in the world. -- Trans.

Trihut District was quite large in area. The British divided it into two parts: Muzaffarpur District in the west with its headquarters at Muzaffarpur, and Darbhanga District in the west with its headquarters at Laheriasarai village (which has since become so large that it almost touches the city of Darbhanga. The old Muzaffarpur District is now divided into three districts: Sitamarhi, Muzaffarpur and Vaeshali (Hazipur). This is the same Muzaffarpur which was considered as one of the most cultured places in the whole of the then Suba Ba'nga'l. The old Darbhanga District has since also been divided into three districts: Madhubanii (a place where there is an abundance of forest honey); Darbhanga, named after the famous Da'r'ibhanga' Shah (In Maethilii the town is called "Dair'bhanga" but spelt Dar'ibhanga') ; and Samastipur, named after Samasti Na'ra'yan Ray). 

The Maethilii branch of the pre-Gaod'iiya valley civilization was enriched by the Mongol-Tantric civilization that flourished in the Na'ra'yan'ii Ganges, Buri-Gan'd'aka, Lakhandei, Ba'gmatii, Kamala'ba'la'n and Koshii valleys. King Prthvii Na'ra'yan Shah established the Gorkha empire in Nepal at this time. The Gorkhas occupied Tirhut District and advanced up to Hazipur. Thereafter they were defeated by the British (The British commander-in-chief was General Octorloney in whose name the Englishmen living in Calcutta built a war memorial. In recent times, the leaders, ignorant of history, have changed the name of the Octorloney Memorial to Shahiid Minar [Martyrs' Column]) and were forced to sign the Treaty of Sugaoli (Champaran District). According to the terms of the treaty, the British got possession of Garhwal and Kumayun regions from Nepal, which was included in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, and they also reclaimed a major portion of Champaran and Trihut Districts. Part of the northern portion of Trihut was left in Nepal and is still part of Nelapese territory. The former capital of Mithila', Janakpur, is situated in that area. Many people of Bengal know the famous Janakpur catachu. 

I got off the train at Muzzafarpur and spent two days of intense activity there. I arrived home about a week later, my mind full of pleasant memories. Waiting for me on the table was a letter from Himava'n, sent from Burdwan, in which he wrote: "Dear Uncle, We had an unforgettable experience on our return to Burdwan. We left Ka'shii late Tuesday evening and were sure that we would reach home either late Tuesday night or Wednesday morning at dawn. Late into the night, mother and I were discussing river-valley civilizations when we suddenly heard a huge crash and felt a severe jolt. I don't remember ever having heard such a loud noise in all my life. In a fraction of a second the train seemed to be smashed into pieces. There was commotion all around -- people were screaming -- chaos reigned everywhere. Mother and I were violently thrown out of the derailed compartment. Pieces of train and the passengers' baggage were scattered here and there. We realized we were the victims of a tragic accident -- who knows how many were lying dead. Both of us were violently thrown towards part of the derailed train, screaming desperately. Suddenly both of us perceived my father (Sri Aruprathan Mitra) rushing towards us. He grabbed each of us by the hand and pulled us out of the wreckage, saving us from the jaws of inevitable death. What happened next we cannot say, for we both became unconscious. 

"When the rays of the rising sun fell onto our faces we regained consciousness and, looking around, discovered that we were lying on a hay-stack on the edge of a paddy field beside the railway line. As we had fallen onto hay our injuries were not severe -- just a few bruises. A crowd of villagers had gathered around us. We saw the wreckage of the train in the distance and heard the pitiful screams and lamentations of the seriously wounded. "The local people were very kind, as the people of Burdwan usually are. On seeing the slightest hardship of others, tears come into their eyes. Those people standing around us desperately wanted to help and kept asking what they could do to make us feel more comfortable. They were prepared to do anything to help. We asked them to look for my father and to bring him to where we were lying. They searched everywhere for him, but without success. "There's no one called Aru'pratan Mitra here," they said. They helped us get to our feet -- which we could only do with great difficulty -- so that we could also look for him. But our search was also unsuccessful -- he was not to be seen anywhere. By that time the railway auxiliary van had arrived from Burdwan. We approached the authorities and with their help returned to Burdwan. The site of the accident was near Burdwan so we didn't have much difficulty getting home. 

"Well, uncle, how were we saved? Is it called 'fate' or is it perhaps the work of destiny?" 

I was utterly shocked by what I read. Himava'n wrote further: "Father has not yet arrived in Burdwan. We went to the airport to make some enquiries about him and learnt that the plane he was supposed to take still hadn't reached Dumdum airport. The ground staff informed us that they had received no news as to the plane's whereabouts, nor was it possible for them to find out for reasons of military security. The plane was carrying a military cargo and the passengers were military personnel. As a result, the military department was trying to black out all news about the non-arrival of the plane." 

No sooner had I finished reading the letter than I heard an announcement on the radio news. The news bulletin disclosed that there was a serious plane crash somewhere along the Mediterranean coast-line last Monday at 8.45 P.M. Due to certain military reasons the exact details could not be disclosed. All the passengers died in the crash. From the passenger list provided at the airport it appears there were twenty Indian passengers. Their names and addresses have been confirmed, but the dead bodies were so severely burned that identification is impossible. The names of the Indians are 1)... 2)... 3).... 4) ... Among the passengers there was a man from Calcutta, a Sri Aru'pratan Mitra. 

I was speechless. I pieced all the events together and concluded that it was indeed at 9 P.M. on Monday that Sri Aru'pratan, gasping for breath, rushed into my compartment at Benares railway station. He told me that he had been feeling considerable mental unease for the past fifteen minutes, since 8:45. His mind was terribly restless. He had come to me in quest of peace. He had travelled a long distance and that is why he was gasping for breath. 

      After hearing the news I was so bewildered that I was unable to decide what to do. How should I reply to Himva'n's letter, I thought.

12 January 1986, Calcutta